There have been numerous studies on shotcrete based on strength and durability. However, few studies have been conducted on rheological characteristics, which are very important parameters for evaluating the pumpability and shootability of shotcrete. In those studies, silica fume has been generally used as a mineral admixture to simultaneously enhance the strength, durability, pumpability, and shootability of shotcrete. Silica fume is well-known to significantly increase the viscosity of a mixture and to prevent material sliding at the receiving surface when used in shotcrete mixtures. However, the use of silica fume in shotcrete increases the possibility of plastic shrinkage cracking owing to its very high fineness, and further, silica fume increases the cost of manufacturing the shotcrete mixture because of its cost and handling. Colloidal silica is a new material in which nano-silica is dispersed in water, and it could solve the above-mentioned problems. The purpose of this research is to develop high-performance shotcrete with appropriate levels of strength and workability as well as use colloidal silica for normal structures without a tunnel structure. Thereafter, the workability of shotcrete with colloidal silica (2, 3, and 4%) was evaluated with a particle size of 10 nm and silica fume replacement (4 and 7%) of cement. In this study, an air-entraining agent for producing high-performance shotcrete was also used. The rheological properties of fresh shotcrete mixtures were estimated using an ICAR rheometer and the measured rheological parameters such as flow resistance and torque viscosity were correlated with the workability and shootability. More appropriate results will be focusing on the Bingham model properties such that the main focus here is to compare all data using the Bingham model and its performance. The pumpability, shootability, and build-up thickness characteristics were also evaluated for the performance of the shotcrete. This research mainly focuses on the Bingham model for absolute value because it creates an exact linear line in a graphical analysis, which provides more appropriate results for measuring the shotcrete performance rather than ICAR rheometer relative data.

Wet-mix shotcrete technology is widely used worldwide. One possible approach to developing this technology is the use of various admixtures to improve its pumpability and shootability. However, the commonly used slump test is insufficient to evaluate the capabilities of fresh shotcrete, because they do not assess the influence of multiple factors on its workability and placement properties. The purpose of this paper is to investigate and determine the effect of colloidal silica with a particle size of 10 nm (with 2%, 3%, and 4% replacement) on high-performance shotcrete from a rheological and mechanical perspective. In addition, to compare these indicators, silica fume is used with a 4% and 7% mixing rate. Rheological parameters such as torque viscosity and flow resistance of fresh concrete were evaluated using an ICAR rheometer, and the measured values were correlated with pumpability and shootability. The results of the study demonstrate that torque viscosity decreases and flow resistance increases with the increase in the percentage of colloidal silica. Similarly, silica fume increases flow resistance and reduces torque viscosity. These findings demonstrate the possibility of obtaining high-performance shotcrete with improved pumpability and shootability by employing more colloidal silica and silica fume. It was also established that these supplementary cement materials improve the strength and durability of shotcrete.

This study analyzed the effect of accelerating agents, such as aluminate, cement mineral, and alkali-free accelerators, on the long-term performance of steel-fiber-reinforced shotcrete. The shotcrete performance was studied based on the type and amount of steel fiber added. Performance tests were performed to identify the accelerator providing better long-term performance to the steel-fiber-reinforced shotcrete. Changes in strength and flexural performance over time were investigated. The compressive strength and flexural strength tests on 1-, 3-, 6-, 12-, and 24-month-old test specimens were performed, wherein 37 kg of steel fiber was added to the cement mineral and aluminate mixes, and 40 kg of steel fiber was added to the alkali-free mix. The 1-month compressive strength result of all the test variables satisfied the Korea Expressway Corporation standard. The compressive strength of the cast concrete and shotcrete specimens increased with age, demonstrating a strength reduction, particularly in the 24-month-old shotcrete specimens. Thus, the shotcrete performance may deteriorate in the long-term. In the 24-month-old specimen, substantial flexural strength reduction was observed, particularly in the aluminate and alkali-free specimens. The relative strength of the specimens was compared with that of the cast concrete mold specimens. The results suggest the use of alkali-free accelerators, considering the long-term performance of tunnels and safety of workers. Moreover, increasing the steel fiber performance rather than the amount of low-performance steel fiber must be considered.

The compressive stress of concrete is used as a design variable for reinforced concrete structures in design standards. However, as the performance-based design is being used with increasing varieties and strengths of concrete and reinforcement bars, mechanical properties other than the compressive stress of concrete are sometimes used as major design variables. In particular, the evaluation of the mechanical properties of concrete is crucial when using fiber-reinforced concrete. Studies of high volume fractions in established compressive behavior prediction equations are insufficient compared to studies of conventional fiber-reinforced concrete. Furthermore, existing prediction equations for the mechanical properties of high-performance fiber-reinforced cementitious composite and high-strength concrete have limitations in terms of the strength and characteristics of contained fibers (diameter, length, volume fraction) even though the stress-strain relationship is determined by these factors. Therefore, this study developed a high-performance slurry-infiltrated fiber-reinforced cementitious composite that could prevent the fiber ball phenomenon, a disadvantage of conventional fiber-reinforced concrete, and maximize the fiber volume fraction. Then, the behavior characteristics under compressive stress were analyzed for fiber volume fractions of 4%, 5%, and 6%.

This article examines the characteristics of shotcrete from the standpoint of resistance to plastic shrinkage cracking. The effects of 2%, 3%, and 4% replacement with colloidal silica (CS) with a 10-nm particle size on the performance of shotcrete was examined, as were the effects of addition of supplementary cement materials in combination with CS, such as silica fume (SF) and ultra-fine fly ash (UFFA). Plastic cracking was examined from three perspectives: its effect on strength development (especially at the initial stage), assessment of plastic shrinkage in accordance with the ASTM C1579, and related issues of bleeding and evaporation. Compressive and flexural strength tests were conducted to gain an understanding of the processes involved, and the Intelligent Crack Viewer FCV-30 was used to estimate crack widths. The results show that the replacement with CS increases the compressive and flexural strength during hardening, which increases its resistance to tensile shrinkage stresses. The practical assessment of cracks showed that a significant reduction in the width of plastic shrinkage cracks was also achieved. The combination of 4% SF and 2% CS significantly reduced the risk of cracking and improved strength characteristics. The application of CS reduced the effect of 20% UFFA on plastic cracking.