Increasing occurrences of waste fires that are caused by improperly discarded lithium-based portable batteries threaten the whole waste management sector in numerous countries. Studies showed that high quantities of these batteries have been found in several municipal solid waste streams in recent years in Austria. This article reveals the main influence factors on the risk of lithium-based batteries in their end-of-life and it focuses on the quantification of damages to portable batteries during waste treatment processes. Hazards are identified and analysed and potential risks in waste management systems are comprehensively assessed. In two scenarios, the results showed that the potential risks are too high to maintain a sustainable form of waste management. According to the assessment, a small fire in a collection vehicle is located in the risk graph’s yellow region (as low as reasonably practicable, ALARP), while a fully developed fire in a treatment plant has to be classified as an unacceptable risk (red region of risk graph). Finally, basic recommendations for action were made.

Although separate collection systems for portable batteries (PBs) have been installed years ago, high amounts of batteries still do not enter the collection systems of the member states of the European Union (EU). In Austria, the collection rate has recently dropped to the EU target value of 45%. For the purposes of this study, a comprehensive survey was conducted to identify the destinations of the other end-of-life batteries. A literature survey and an assessment of different waste streams (WSs) were followed by sampling and sorting campaigns for highly relevant WSs (residual waste, lightweight packaging waste, metal packaging waste, and small waste electrical and electronic equipment). The results underwent material flow analysis, showing that more than 800 metric tonnes of portable batteries are misplaced into non-battery-specific collection systems, 718 metric tonnes of them entering residual waste collection. Considerable amounts of batteries are stockpiled, stored or hoarded in Austrian households. Lithium-based batteries, representing a serious risk of fire to the waste industry and making up for 30% of the marketed amount, are still scarcely arriving in waste management systems.

This study investigates graphite separation from Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) black mass (which is a mixture of anode and cathode materials) via froth flotation coupled with an open-loop recycling approach for the graphite (froth) product. Black mass samples originating from different LIB types were used to produce a carbon-poor and a carbon-enriched fractions. The optimization of the flotation parameters was carried out depending on the black mass chemistry, i.e., the number of flotation stages and the dosing of flotation agents. The carbon-enriched product (with a carbon content of 92 wt.%, corresponding to a recovery of 89%) was subsequently used as a secondary carbon source for refractory material (magnesia carbon brick). Analyses of brick chemistry, as well as thermo-mechanic properties in terms of density, porosity, cold crushing strength (CCS), hot modulus of rupture (HMOR—the maximum bending stress that can be applied to a material before it breaks), and thermal conductivity showed no negative influence on brick quality. It could be demonstrated that flotation graphite can principally be used as a secondary source for non-battery applications. This is a highly valuable example that contributes to a more complete closure of a battery’s life cycle in terms of circular economy.

Zusammenfassung: Mit anhaltender Verkehrswende nimmt die Bedeutung von Lithium-Ionen-Batterien (LIB) in Zukunft stark zu. Im Sinne der Kreislaufwirtschaft sind einerseits die optimale und nachhaltige Nutzung vorhandener Ressourcen, andererseits das Schließen von Material-Kreisläufen durch geeignete und effiziente Recyclingverfahren unabdingbar. Der Artikel behandelt die aktuellen Problemfelder und Herausforderungen entlang der Wertschöpfungskette von LIB am Ende ihres Lebenszyklus. Dabei werden insbesondere Aspekte der Vorbehandlung und des Recyclings beleuchtet.

The increased utilisation of lithium-ion batteries in the last years does not come without cost. Due to thermal runaway and exothermic degradation reactions, portable batteries pose enormous risks to waste management systems and infrastructure in their end-of-life phase. All over Europe, the number of waste fires caused by lithium-ion batteries are rising. The risk of a battery fire is mainly influenced by the probability and severity of a thermal runaway or exothermic degradation, which depends on the current state of charge (SOC) of the respective battery. In order to determine the distribution of the SOC which is one of the main influence factors to waste fires caused by lithium-ion batteries, 980 waste battery cells were representatively sampled, manually dismantled and analysed using a prototypic laboratory test stand. Approximately 24% of the analysed cells and batteries had a residual SOC of at least 25%, and approximately 12% had a residual SOC of at least 50%. Hence, approximately every fourth to eighth portable battery threatens to cause a waste fire when critically damaged. Furthermore, a distinct relationship between the actual cell voltage and the residual SOC was found for end-of-life portable batteries.

In many European and North American countries, stakeholders and interest groups endeavour to improve fire prevention in the industry of waste management, disposal and recycling. Despite the industry’s commitment to increasing safety and fire prevention measures, incidents have peaked in recent years, causing numerous problems: Environmental pollution, potential loss of resources, facility infrastructure and contractual partners, even higher insurance rates and deductibles. The most severe consequence which is recently spreading is the looming peril of a total loss of insurance cover. This paper discusses the comprehensive results of the survey and analysis of 285 fire incidents in the waste industry of Austria that have occurred within the recent decade. First, the historical development and reasons for the current increase in waste fires are stated, revealing waste-specific fire patterns such as self-ignition and the expanding range of potential ignition sources. Second, the statistical correlation between the probability of fire incidents and seasonal or climatic factors is shown. Third, the paper presents specific findings regarding the most commonly affected waste streams as well as the distribution patterns of ignition sources and causes. For example, most fire incidents occur in storage and transport areas (52.6% and 22.8%). Finally, probable driving forces are indicated and the potential development of risks and hazards from future waste fires are shown. The paper reveals a fundamental understanding of the conditions and incipiency of fires in waste management, disposal and recycling as well as gaps in our present knowledge that compellingly require further research.