Lithium-ion batteries (LIBs) show high energy densities and are therefore used in a wide range of applications: from portable electronics to stationary energy storage systems and traction batteries used for e-mobility. Considering the projected increase in global demand for this energy storage technology, driven primarily by growth in e-vehicles, and looking at the criticality of some raw materials used in LIBs, the need for an efficient recycling strategy emerges. In this study, current state-of-the-art technologies for LIB recycling are reviewed and future opportunities and challenges, in particular to recover critical raw materials such as lithium or cobalt, are derived. Special attention is paid to the interrelationships between mechanical or thermal pre-treatment and hydro- or pyrometallurgical post-treatment processes. Thus, the unique approach of the article is to link processes beyond individual stages within the recycling chain. It was shown that influencing the physicochemical properties of intermediate products can lead to reduced recycling rates or even the exclusion of certain process options at the end of the recycling chain. More efforts are needed to improve information and data sharing on the exact composition of feedstock for recycling as well as on the processing history of intermediates to enable closed loop LIB recycling. The technical understanding of the interrelationships between different process combinations, such as pyrolytic or mechanical pre-treatment for LIB deactivation and metal separation, respectively, followed by hydrometallurgical treatment, is of crucial importance to increase recovery rates of cathodic metals such as cobalt, nickel, and lithium, but also of other battery components.

Most two-dimensional plastic packaging materials are thermally recovered, which does not add to the recycling quota of 50 % required by EU legislation for all lightweight packaging until 2025. Furthermore, the separation processes for 2D materials cannot reach the same level of accuracy, which is possible in the sorting of rigid plastic packaging. This study proposes new adaptations to existing sorting aggregates to increase the near-infrared spectral quality of two-dimensional materials. It aims to improve the spectral quality, which was defined by the deviation of the spectra from a reference spectrum and the variability of the recorded spectra, which can be achieved by installing reflectors behind the material made up of copper or aluminium. This setup enables detection in transflection rather than reflection mode. The variability could be reduced by a factor of 6 through the use of a reflective background. Meanwhile, the spectral fidelity to the reference spectrum could be enhanced, in some cases decreasing the deviation from the reference spectrum by 30 %, which means enhancing a spectrum from unrecognisable to useable. Apart from using reflective materials, the effects of emitter intensity, material and thickness were evaluated.

This study investigates graphite separation from Lithium-Ion Battery (LIB) black mass (which is a mixture of anode and cathode materials) via froth flotation coupled with an open-loop recycling approach for the graphite (froth) product. Black mass samples originating from different LIB types were used to produce a carbon-poor and a carbon-enriched fractions. The optimization of the flotation parameters was carried out depending on the black mass chemistry, i.e., the number of flotation stages and the dosing of flotation agents. The carbon-enriched product (with a carbon content of 92 wt.%, corresponding to a recovery of 89%) was subsequently used as a secondary carbon source for refractory material (magnesia carbon brick). Analyses of brick chemistry, as well as thermo-mechanic properties in terms of density, porosity, cold crushing strength (CCS), hot modulus of rupture (HMOR—the maximum bending stress that can be applied to a material before it breaks), and thermal conductivity showed no negative influence on brick quality. It could be demonstrated that flotation graphite can principally be used as a secondary source for non-battery applications. This is a highly valuable example that contributes to a more complete closure of a battery’s life cycle in terms of circular economy.

This work presents a hand sorting trial of Austrian plastic packaging, which showed that according to an extrapolation of the 170,000 t separately collected waste collected in Austria, 30 wt% are flexible 2D plastic packaging. Further, the applications for these materials have been catalogued. The composition of these films was evaluated via Fourier-Transformed Infrared Spectroscopy, which showed that 31% of all films were made of polyethene, 39% of polypropylene, 11% of polyethene–polyethene terephthalate composite, and 8% of a polyethene–polypropylene composite, further resulting in the calculation that of all flexible packaging, 20 wt% are multilayer films. These findings were used to calculate the latent potential for raising the current recycling quota of 25.7% to the mandated rate of 55% in 2030. To this end, scenarios depicting different approaches to sorting and recycling small films were evaluated. It was calculated that through improving the sorting of films the recycling rate could be increased to 35.5%. This approach allows for the recycling of monolayer films by avoiding contamination with foreign materials introduced by multilayer films that impede the recyclates’ mechanical properties. The evaluation showed that sorting multilayer films of this fraction could raise the recycling quota further to 38.9%.

Lithium-ion battery (LIB) recycling has become a key area where sustainability goals and circular economy ambitions meet practical challenges. While research often focuses on regulatory or technological solutions, real progress depends on stakeholder action and alignment. This paper combines a literature review and a stakeholder survey (n = 26) to map risks, opportunities, barriers, and interventions, formulating a roadmap for sustainable LIB recycling from the stakeholder perspective. The literature identified 27 opportunities, 21 risks, 32 barriers, and 23 enablers across strategic, operational, institutional, cultural, and technical domains. The study confirms that an implementation gap persists between ambition and practice. Stakeholders know the opportunities, but structural barriers, limited resources, and insufficient attention to cultural enablers dampen progress. The barrier–intervention mapping and the derived roadmap show that interventions must be sequenced strategically: securing resources first, then building data infrastructures and strengthening know-how to finally reduce complexity. The findings show that sustainability progress depends less on technical capability than on sound resource management, reliable data, and institutional support offering a transferable framework to close implementation gaps, as presented in this study, and supports future research on how stakeholder alignment can accelerate sustainable transitions across industries.

Lithium-ion battery (LIB) recycling has become a key area where sustainability goals and circular economy ambitions meet practical challenges. While research often focuses on regulatory or technological solutions, real progress depends on stakeholder action and alignment. This paper combines a literature review and a stakeholder survey (n = 26) to map risks, opportunities, barriers, and interventions, formulating a roadmap for sustainable LIB recycling from the stakeholder perspective. The literature identified 27 opportunities, 21 risks, 32 barriers, and 23 enablers across strategic, operational, institutional, cultural, and technical domains. The study confirms that an implementation gap persists between ambition and practice. Stakeholders know the opportunities, but structural barriers, limited resources, and insufficient attention to cultural enablers dampen progress. The barrier–intervention mapping and the derived roadmap show that interventions must be sequenced strategically: securing resources first, then building data infrastructures, strengthening know-how, to finally reduce complexity. The findings show that sustainability progress depends less on technical capability than on sound resource management, reliable data, and institutional support offering a transferable framework to close implementation gaps as presented in this study and supports future research on how stakeholder alignment can accelerate sustainable transitions across industries.