It is well known that cheese yield and quality are affected by animal genetics, milk quality (chemical, physical, and microbiological), production technology, and the type of rennet and dairy cultures used in production. Major differences in the same type of cheese (i.e., hard cheese) are caused by the rennet and dairy cultures, which affect the ripening process. This review aims to explore current technological advancements in animal genetics, methods for the isolation and production of rennet and dairy cultures, along with possible applications of microencapsulation in rennet and dairy culture production, as well as the challenge posed to current dairy technologies by the preservation of biodiversity. Based on the reviewed scientific literature, it can be concluded that innovative approaches and the described techniques can significantly improve cheese production.

Biogenic amines (BAs) are considered a potential microbiological toxicological hazard in aged cheese. Risk mitigation strategies include good hygiene practice measures, thermal treatment of milk and the use of competitive dairy cultures. The aim of this study was to evaluate the amount of BAs—tryptamine, β-phenylethylamine, putrescine, cadaverine, histamine, tyramine, spermidine and spermine—in the core and rind of cheeses ripened by bacteria (n = 61) and by mold cultures (n = 8). The microbial communities were counted, and the dominant lactic acid bacteria (LAB) were identified, corresponding to the BA concentrations. The total BA content was highest in the core of semi-hard cheeses (353.98 mg/kg), followed by mold cheeses (248.99 mg/kg) and lowest in hard cheeses (157.38 mg/kg). The highest amount of BAs was present in the rind of cheeses with mold (240.52 mg/kg), followed by semi-hard (174.99 mg/kg) and hard cheeses (107.21 mg/kg). Tyramine was the most abundant BA, represented by 75.4% in mold cheeses, 41.3% in hard cheese and 35% of total BAs in semi-hard cheeses. Histamine was present above the defined European maximum level (ML) of 100 mg/kg in only two semi-hard and three hard cheeses. High amount of BAs (above 600 mg/kg) in cheeses, mainly tyramine, were associated with the presence of Enterococcus durans, while negligible BA concentrations were found in cheeses ripened with Lacticaseibacillus rhamnosus, Lactococcus lactis or Lacticaseibacillus paracasei cultures. This study has shown that retailed cheese varieties produced with commercial bacterial or mold cultures have acceptable levels of biogenic amines with respect to consumers.

The implementation of the traditional meat safety control system has significantly contributed to increasing food safety and public health protection. However, several biological hazards have emerged in meat production, requiring a comprehensive approach to their control, as traditional methods of meat inspection at the slaughterhouse are not able to detect them. While national control programs exist for the most important meat-related hazards, similar data are still lacking for certain neglected threats, such as Yersinia enterocolitica or Toxoplasma gondii. The obstacle in controlling these hazards in the meat chain is their presence in latently infected, asymptomatic animals. Their effective control can only be achieved through systematic preventive measures, surveillance or monitoring, and antimicrobial interventions on farms and in slaughterhouses. To establish such a system, it is important to collect all relevant data on hazard-related epidemiological indicators from the meat chain, which should provide relevant guidance for interventions at the harvest and post-harvest stage. The proposed approach is expected to improve the existing system and provide many opportunities to improve food safety and public health.

The probiotic bacterium Bifidobacterium animalis subsp. lactis BB-12 (BB-12) was encapsulated in two composites, alginate/agar and alginate/agar/casein. The network structure and physicochemical properties of these composites are influenced by complex interactions, including hydrogen bonding, electrostatic forces between biopolymers, calcium ions, and the encapsulated bacteria. The composites demonstrated a granular surface, with the granules being spatially oriented on the alginate/agar/BB-12 surface and linearly oriented on the alginate/agar/casein/BB-12 surface. They possess a highly organized microparticle structure and exhibit viscoelastic solid-like behavior. The alginate/agar/BB-12 composite showed higher storage modulus, shear stress, and shear strain values, indicating enhanced stability in various physical environments. Both composites displayed good thermal stability, aligning with their rheological properties, confirming their well-ordered structures. Despite differences in composite structures, the release mechanism of bacteria is governed by Fickian diffusion through the composite matrix. Based on physicochemical properties, the alginate/agar/casein composite is recommended for dairy product fermentation, while the alginate/agar composite seems more suitable for oral use. These findings provide new insights into the interactions between bacterial cultures and alginate composite ingredients.

Encapsulation in alginate hydrogel microspheres is an effective method for protecting and improving the survival of lactic acid bacteria in different environments. This research aims to expand the knowledge about the structure/property relationship of calcium alginate microspheres loaded with a mixture of autochthonous probiotic bacteria (Lactococcus lactis and Lactiplantibacillus plantarum). A novel hydrogel formulation (FORMLAB) was prepared by ionic gelation and the molecular interactions between the FORMLAB constituents, surface morphology, structure, swelling degree, and release profile were characterized. The simultaneous encapsulation of two bacterial cultures in the same compartment does not diminish their viability. The binding of calcium ions to bacterial cells creates favorable conditions for the propagation of the encapsulated bacteria. The molecular interactions between the FORMLAB constituents are complex, involving mainly hydrogen bonds and electrostatic interactions. With a very high degree of swelling followed by low crosslinking, the surface of the microspheres covered with bacterial cells and diffusion through the hydrogel matrix allow for the delivery of probiotics at the right time. The findings suggest that bacterial cells are efficiently delivered from calcium alginate microspheres, offering promising applications in the development of functional foods, especially in cheese production.

Yersinia enterocolitica is one of the priority biological hazards in pork inspection. Persistence of the pathogen, including strains resistant to antimicrobials, should be evaluated in pigs from different housing systems for risk ranking of farms. In this 2019 study, tonsils were collected from 234 pigs, of which 69 (29.5%) were fattened on 3 big integrated farms, 130 (55.5%) on 10 medium-sized farms, and 35 (15%) on 13 small family farms. In addition, 92 pork cuts and minced meat samples from the same farms were tested for the presence of Y. enterocolitica using the culture method. Phenotypic and genetic characteristics of the isolates were compared with previously collected isolates from 2014. The overall prevalence of Y. enterocolitica in pig tonsils was 43% [95% CI 36.7–49.7]. In pigs from big integrated, medium-sized, and small family farms, the prevalence was 29%, 52%, and 40%, respectively. All retail samples of portioned and minced pork tested negative for pathogenic Y. enterocolitica, likely due to high hygienic standards in slaughterhouses/cutting meat or low sensitivity of culture methods in these matrices. The highest recovery rate of the pathogen from tonsils was found when alkali-treated PSB and CIN agar were combined. The biosecurity category of integrated and medium farms did not affect the differences in prevalence of Y. enterocolitica (p > 0.05), in contrast to family farms. Pathogenic ail-positive Y. enterocolitica biotype 4 serotype O:3 persisted in the tonsils of pigs regardless of the type of farm, slaughterhouse, and year of isolation 2014 and 2019. PFGE typing revealed the high genetic concordance (80.6 to 100%) of all the Y. enterocolitica 4/O:3 isolates. A statistically significant higher prevalence of multidrug-resistant Y. enterocolitica 4/O:3 isolates was detected in the tonsils of pigs from big integrated farms compared to the other farm types (p < 0.05), with predominant and increasing resistance to nalidixic acid, chloramphenicol, and streptomycin. This study demonstrated multidrug resistance of the pathogen in pigs likely due to more antimicrobial pressure on big farms, with intriguing resistance to some clinically relevant antimicrobials used in the treatment of yersiniosis in humans.