The loss of expression of chondrogenic markers during monolayer expansion remains a stumbling block for cell-based treatment of cartilage lesions. Here, we introduce sulfated alginate hydrogels as a cartilage biomimetic biomaterial that induces cell proliferation while maintaining the chondrogenic phenotype of encapsulated chondrocytes. Hydroxyl groups of alginate were converted to sulfates by incubation with sulfur trioxide-pyridine complex (SO3/pyridine), yielding a sulfated material cross-linkable with calcium chloride. Passage 3 bovine chondrocytes were encapsulated in alginate and alginate sulfate hydrogels for up to 35 days. Cell proliferation was five-fold higher in alginate sulfate compared with alginate (p=0.038). Blocking beta1 integrins in chondrocytes within alginate sulfate hydrogels significantly inhibited proliferation (p=0.002). Sulfated alginate increased the RhoA activity of chondrocytes compared with unmodified alginate, an increase that was blocked by β1 blocking antibodies (p=0.017). Expression and synthesis of type II collagen, type I collagen, and proteoglycan was not significantly affected by the encapsulation material evidenced by quantitative reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR) and immunohistochemistry. Alginate sulfate constructs showed an opaque appearance in culture, whereas the unmodified alginate samples remained translucent. In conclusion, alginate sulfate provides a three dimensional microenvironment that promotes both chondrocyte proliferation and maintenance of the chondrogenic phenotype and represents an important advance for chondrocyte-based cartilage repair therapies providing a material in which cell expansion can be done in situ.

Degeneration of articular cartilage represents one of the most common causes of pain and disability in our aging society. Current treatments only address the symptoms of joint disease, but not their underlying causes which include oxidative stress and inflammation in cartilage and surrounding tissues. Sulfated biopolymers that mimic aspects of the native extracellular environment of cartilage are recently gaining interest as a means to slow the inflammatory events responsible for tissue degeneration. Here we show that the natural polysaccharide alginate and particularly its sulfated derivatives have potent anti-oxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-immunogenic properties in vitro. We found that these polymers exert a free radical scavenging activity in a sulfation-dependent manner. In particular, the sulfation degree of substitution of alginate directly correlated with its ability to scavenge superoxide radicals and to chelate metal ions. We also studied the effect of sulfated alginate on the ability of IL-1β to stimulate inflammatory genes in human chondrocytes and found decreased expression of the pro-inflammatory markers IL-6 and CXCL8, which inversely correlated with the sulfation degree. Moreover, in studies testing the ability of the alginates to modulate macrophage polarization, we found that they decreased both the gene expression and synthesis of the proinflammatory cytokine TNF-α in human THP-1 macrophages with M1-like phenotype in a sulfation-dependent manner. To conclude, sulfated alginates effectively protect against oxidative stress and inflammation in vitro and are a promising biomaterial to be explored for treatment of osteoarthritis.

Brain-on-Chip (BoC) biotechnology is emerging as a promising tool for biomedical and pharmaceutical research applied to the neurosciences. At the convergence between lab-on-chip and cell biology, BoC couples in vitro three-dimensional brain-like systems to an engineered microfluidics platform designed to provide an in vivo-like extrinsic microenvironment with the aim of replicating tissue- or organ-level physiological functions. BoC therefore offers the advantage of an in vitro reproduction of brain structures that is more faithful to the native correlate than what is obtained with conventional cell culture techniques. As brain function ultimately results in the generation of electrical signals, electrophysiology techniques are paramount for studying brain activity in health and disease. However, as BoC is still in its infancy, the availability of combined BoC–electrophysiology platforms is still limited. Here, we summarize the available biological substrates for BoC, starting with a historical perspective. We then describe the available tools enabling BoC electrophysiology studies, detailing their fabrication process and technical features, along with their advantages and limitations. We discuss the current and future applications of BoC electrophysiology, also expanding to complementary approaches. We conclude with an evaluation of the potential translational applications and prospective technology developments.

Neuron development and function are exquisitely sensitive to the mechanical properties of their surroundings. Three-dimensional (3D) cultures are therefore being explored as they better mimic the features of the native extracellular matrix. Limitations of existing 3D culture models include poorly defined composition, rapid degradation, and suboptimal biocompatibility. Here we show that ionically cross-linked ultrasoft hydrogels made from unmodified alginate can potently promote neuritogenesis. Alginate hydrogels were characterized mechanically and a remarkable range of stiffness (10-4000 Pa) could be produced by varying the macromer content (0.1-0.4% w/v) and CaCl2 concentration. Dissociated rat embryonic cortical neurons encapsulated within the softest of the hydrogels (0.1% w/v, 10 mM CaCl2) showed excellent viability, extensive formation of axons and dendrites, and long-term activity as determined by calcium imaging. In conclusion, alginate is an off-the-shelf, easy to handle, and inexpensive material, which can be used to make ultrasoft hydrogels for the formation of stable and functional 3D neuronal networks. This 3D culture system could have important applications in neuropharmacology, toxicology, and regenerative medicine.