With the ever-increasing importance of dairy and meat production, precision livestock farming (PLF) using advanced information technologies is emerging to improve farming production systems. The latest automation, connectivity, and artificial intelligence developments open new horizons to monitor livestock in the pasture, controlled environments, and open environments. Due to the significance of livestock detection and tracking, this systematic review extracts and summarizes the existing deep learning (DL) techniques in PLF using unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). In the context of livestock recognition studies, UAVs are receiving growing attention due to their flexible data acquisition and operation in different conditions. This review examines the implemented DL architectures and scrutinizes the broadly exploited evaluation metrics, attributes, and databases. The classification of most UAV livestock monitoring systems using DL techniques is in three categories: detection, classification, and localization. Correspondingly, this paper discusses the future benefits and drawbacks of these DL-based PLF approaches using UAV imagery. Additionally, this paper describes alternative methods used to mitigate issues in PLF. The aim of this work is to provide insights into the most relevant studies on the development of UAV-based PLF systems focused on deep neural network-based techniques.

Numeral recognition is considered an essential preliminary step for optical character recognition, document understanding, and others. Although several handwritten numeral recognition algorithms have been proposed so far, achieving adequate recognition accuracy and execution time remain challenging to date. In particular, recognition accuracy depends on the features extraction mechanism. As such, a fast and robust numeral recognition method is essential, which meets the desired accuracy by extracting the features efficiently while maintaining fast implementation time. Furthermore, to date most of the existing studies are focused on evaluating their methods based on clean environments, thus limiting understanding of their potential application in more realistic noise environments. Therefore, finding a feasible and accurate handwritten numeral recognition method that is accurate in the more practical noisy environment is crucial. To this end, this paper proposes a new scheme for handwritten numeral recognition using Hybrid orthogonal polynomials. Gradient and smoothed features are extracted using the hybrid orthogonal polynomial. To reduce the complexity of feature extraction, the embedded image kernel technique has been adopted. In addition, support vector machine is used to classify the extracted features for the different numerals. The proposed scheme is evaluated under three different numeral recognition datasets: Roman, Arabic, and Devanagari. We compare the accuracy of the proposed numeral recognition method with the accuracy achieved by the state-of-the-art recognition methods. In addition, we compare the proposed method with the most updated method of a convolutional neural network. The results show that the proposed method achieves almost the highest recognition accuracy in comparison with the existing recognition methods in all the scenarios considered. Importantly, the results demonstrate that the proposed method is robust against the noise distortion and outperforms the convolutional neural network considerably, which signifies the feasibility and the effectiveness of the proposed approach in comparison to the state-of-the-art recognition methods under both clean noise and more realistic noise environments.

With the increasing growth of multimedia data, the current real-world video sharing websites are being huge in repository size, more specifically video databases. This growth necessitates to look for superior techniques in processing video because video contains a lot of useful information. Temporal video segmentation (TVS) is considered essential stage in content-based video indexing and retrieval system. TVS aims to detect boundaries between successive video shots. TVS algorithm design is still challenging because most of the recent methods are unable to achieve fast and robust detection. In this regard, this paper proposes a TVS algorithm with high precision and recall values, and low computation cost for detecting different types of video transitions. The proposed algorithm is based on orthogonal moments which are considered as features to detect transitions. To increase the speed of the TVS algorithm as well as the accuracy, fast block processing and embedded orthogonal polynomial algorithms are utilized to extract features. This utilization will lead to extract multiple local features with low computational cost. Support vector machine (SVM) classifier is used to detect transitions. Specifically, the hard transition are detected by the trained SVM model and then refined to eliminate the false-alarm events. The proposed algorithm has been evaluated on four datasets. In addition, the performance of the proposed algorithm is compared to several state-of-the-art TVS algorithms. Experimental results demonstrated that the proposed algorithm performance improvements in terms of recall, precision, and F1-score are within the ranges (1.31 -2.58), (1.53 -4.28), and (1.41 -3.03), respectively. Moreover, the proposed method shows low computation cost which is 2% of real-time.

The large number of visual applications in multimedia sharing websites and social networks contribute to the increasing amounts of multimedia data in cyberspace. Video data is a rich source of information and considered the most demanding in terms of storage space. With the huge development of digital video production, video management becomes a challenging task. Video content analysis (VCA) aims to provide big data solutions by automating the video management. To this end, shot boundary detection (SBD) is considered an essential step in VCA. It aims to partition the video sequence into shots by detecting shot transitions. High computational cost in transition detection is considered a bottleneck for real-time applications. Thus, in this paper, a balance between detection accuracy and speed for SBD is addressed by presenting a new method for fast video processing. The proposed SBD framework is based on the concept of candidate segment selection with frame active area and separable moments. First, for each frame, the active area is selected such that only the informative content is considered. This leads to a reduction in the computational cost and disturbance factors. Second, for each active area, the moments are computed using orthogonal polynomials. Then, an adaptive threshold and inequality criteria are used to eliminate most of the non-transition frames and preserve candidate segments. For further elimination, two rounds of bisection comparisons are applied. As a result, the computational cost is reduced in the subsequent stages. Finally, machine learning statistics based on the support vector machine is implemented to detect the cut transitions. The enhancement of the proposed fast video processing method over existing methods in terms of computational complexity and accuracy is verified. The average improvements in terms of frame percentage and transition accuracy percentage are 1.63% and 2.05%, respectively. Moreover, for the proposed SBD algorithm, a comparative study is performed with state-of-the-art algorithms. The comparison results confirm the superiority of the proposed algorithm in computation time with improvement of over 38%.

Orthogonal moments are beneficial tools for analyzing and representing images and objects. Different hybrid forms, which are first and second levels of combination, have been created from the Tchebichef and Krawtchouk polynomials. In this study, all the hybrid forms, including the first and second levels of combination that satisfy the localization and energy compaction (EC) properties, are investigated. A new hybrid polynomial termed as squared Tchebichef–Krawtchouk polynomial (STKP) is also proposed. The mathematical and theoretical expressions of STKP are introduced, and the performance of the STKP is evaluated and compared with other hybrid forms. Results show that the STKP outperforms the existing hybrid polynomials in terms of EC and localization properties. Image reconstruction analysis is performed to demonstrate the ability of STKP in actual images; a comparative evaluation is also applied with Charlier and Meixner polynomials in terms of normalized mean square error. Moreover, an object recognition task is performed to verify the promising abilities of STKP as a feature extraction tool. A correct recognition percentage shows the robustness of the proposed polynomial in object recognition by providing a reliable feature vector for the classification process.