Partial shading on solar photovoltaic (PV) arrays is a prevalent problem in photovoltaic systems that impair the performance of PV modules and is responsible for reduced power output as compared to that in standard irradiance conditions thereby resulting in the appearance of multiple maximas on panel output power characteristics. These maxims contribute to mismatch power losses among PV modules. The mismatch losses depend on shading characteristics together with different interconnected configuration schemes of PV modules. The research presents a comparative analysis of partial shading effects on a 4 × 4 PV array system connected in series (S), parallel (P), serries-parallel (SP), total-cross-tied (TCT), central-cross-tied (CCT), bridge-linked (BL), bridge-linked total cross-tied (BLTCT), honey-comb (HC), honey-comb total-cross-tied (HCTCT) and ladder (LD) configurations using MATLAB/Simulink. The PV module SPR-X20-250-BLK was used for modeling and simulation analysis. Each module is comprised of 72 number of PV cells and a combination of 16 PV modules was employed for the contextual analysis. Accurate mathematical modeling for the HCTCT configuration under partial shading conditions (PSCs) is provided for the first time and is verified from the simulation. The different configuration schemes were investigated under short-narrow, short-wide, long-narrow, long-wide, diagonal, entire row distribution, and entire column distribution partial shading condition patterns with mathematical implementation and simulation of passing clouds. The performance of array configurations is compared in terms of maximum power generated (P_mp), mismatch power loss (ΔP_ml), relative power loss (P_rl) and the fill factor (FF). It was inferred that on average, TCT configuration yielded maximum power generation under all shading patterns among all PV modules interconnection configurations with minimum mismatch power losses followed by hybrid and conventional PV array configurations respectively.

In this paper, we characterized and reviewed the emergence of fundamental and extended losses that limit the efficiency of a photovoltaic (PV) system. Although there is an upper theoretical bound to the power conversion efficiency of solar cells, i.e., the Shockley Queisser limit, in a practical environment, the consideration of inevitable losses in a whole PV system is imperative to optimally harvest solar energy. In this regard, this study quantifies the losses from a PV cell level to the whole PV system. It was perceived that reported losses on the PV cell level included the low energy bandgap, thermalization, recombination (surface and bulk recombination), optical absorption, space charge region, finite thickness, and metal contact loss, and it was determined that cutting techniques mainly constrained the power conversion efficiency of the solar cell. Furthermore, the detailed PV array losses were classified as mismatch power losses, dust accumulation losses, temperature effects, material quality losses, and ohmic wiring losses. The unavoidable system losses were quantified as inverter losses, maximum power point tracking losses, battery losses, and polarization losses. The study also provides insights into potential approaches to combat these losses and can become a useful guide to better visualize the overall phenomenology of a PV System.

The nitrogenated holey two-dimensional carbon nitride (${\mathrm{C}}_2\mathrm{N}$) has been efficaciously utilized in the fabrication of transistors, sensors, and batteries in recent years, but lacks application in the photovoltaic industry. The ${\mathrm{C}}_2\mathrm{N}$ possesses favorable optoelectronic properties. To investigate its potential feasibility for solar cells (as either an absorber layer/interface layer), we foremost detailed the numerical modeling of the double-absorber-layer–methyl ammonium lead iodide (${\mathrm{CH}}_3{\mathrm{NH}}_3{\mathrm{PbI}}_3$) –carbon nitride (${\mathrm{C}}_2\mathrm{N}$) layer solar cell and subsequently provided in-depth insight into the active-layer-associated recombination losses limiting the efficiency ($\mathsf{\eta }$) of the solar cell. Under the recombination kinetics phenomena, we explored the influence of radiative recombination, Auger recombination, Shockley Read Hall recombination, the energy distribution of defects, Band Tail recombination (Hoping Model), Gaussian distribution, and metastable defect states, including single-donor (0/+), single-acceptor (−/0), double-donor (0/+/2+), double-acceptor (2/−/0−), and the interface-layer defects on the output characteristics of the solar cell. Setting the defect (or trap) density to ${10}^{15}{\mathrm{cm}}^{-3}$ with a uniform energy distribution of defects for all layers, we achieved an$\mathsf{\eta }$ of 24.16%. A considerable enhancement in power-conversion efficiency ($\mathsf{\eta }~27\%$) was perceived as we reduced the trap density to ${10}^{14}{\mathrm{cm}}^{-3}$ for the absorber layers. Furthermore, it was observed that, for the absorber layer with double-donor defect states, the active layer should be carefully synthesized to reduce crystal-order defects to keep the total defect density as low as ${10}^{17}{\mathrm{cm}}^{-3}$ to achieve efficient device characteristics.

Automation and modernization of the grid with the availability of micro-grids including non-conventional sources of energy are the main constituent of smart grid technology. Most energy demand is fulfilled by fossil fuel-based power plants. Inadequacy of fuel resources, higher operating costs, and ever-increasing carbon emissions are the primary constraints of fossil fuels-operated power plants. Sustainable energy resource utilization in meeting energy demand is thought to be a preferred solution for reducing carbon emissions and is also a sustainable economic solution. This research effort discusses an accurate mathematical modeling and simulation implementation of a sustainable energy resource model powered by solar, grid, and proton exchange membrane fuel cell (PEMFC) stack and focuses on the energy management of the model. In the proposed model, despite energy resources being sustainable, consumer side sustainability is achieved by using electrical charging vehicles (ECVs) to be integrated with sustainable resources. The proposed energy resource management (ERM) strategy is evaluated by simulating different operating conditions with and without distributed energy resources exhibiting the effectiveness of the proposed model. PEMFC is incorporated in the model to control fluctuations that have been synchronized with other energy resources for the distribution feeder line. In this proposed model, PEMFC is synchronized with grid and solar energy sources for both DC and AC load with ERM of all sources, making the system effective and reliable for consumer-based load and ECVs utilization.

The world is rapidly advancing towards the electrification of mobility owing to the substantial benefits of emission reduction. Adhering to international trends and environmental obligations, the Government of Pakistan (GOP) also intended to adopt 30@30 plug-in-electric vehicles (PEVs) across the country, which implies 30 percent of new sales will be of PEVs until 2030. Despite the policy guidelines introduced by the GOP as well as incentives for vehicle fleet electrification and indigenization, the foremost challenge is the lack of a PEV charging infrastructure placement plan for the country. In this regard, an optimal locality map for level-3 or direct current fast charging (DCFC) stations’ installation is proposed, considering traffic volume, service area, and local grid facility while ensuring the availability of charging stations across all major networks of the country. The area of focus for this is National Highway 5, known as N5, and the Motorway-2 (M2) Network. The paper also provides insights into the techno-economic analysis of the proposed charging station installation spots. The results are extremely encouraging and reveal the proposed PEV charging stations under observation on the highways from Lahore to Islamabad consumed an electricity share of 3 MW–0.13 MW based on minimum to maximum traffic volume scenarios, respectively. The study is impactful and ultimately paves a way forward for the aggravation of the EV market share by considering the initial investment and a payback period of 7 months. With the help of this study, better planning in terms of EV penetration size and its requirement for public DCFC stations can be implemented, and the exact recipe for the growth of the supportive industry with the pace of PEVs’ perforation can be executed.