In this paper the effect of aflatoxin B1, ochratoxin A and zearalenon on morphology, growth parameters and metabolic activity of yeasts Saccharomyces cerevisiae, Saccharomyces uvarum, Candida utilis and Kluyveromyces marxianus was determined. The results showed that the three mycotoxins affected the morphology of all these yeasts, primarily the cell diameter, but not their final cell count. Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy showed that the yeast membranes bound the mycotoxins, C. utilis in particular. The cell membranes of most yeasts underwent denaturation, except S. uvarum exposed to ochratoxin A and zearalenone. In the early stage of fermentation, all mycotoxin-exposed yeasts had lower metabolic activity and biomass growth than controls, but fermentation products and biomass concentrations reached the control levels by the end of the fermentation, except for C. utilis exposed to 20 µg/mL of zearalenone. The adaptive response to mycotoxins suggests that certain yeasts could be used to control mycotoxin concentrations in the production of fermented food and beverages.

The Septoria Leaf Blotch Complex (SLBC), caused by the two ascomycetes Zymoseptoria tritici and Parastagonospora nodorum, can reduce wheat global yearly yield by up to 50%. In the last decade, SLBC incidence has increased in Italy; notably, durum wheat has proven to be more susceptible than common wheat. Field fungicide treatment can efficiently control these pathogens, but it leads to the emergence of resistant strains and adversely affects human and animal health and the environment. Our previous studies indicated that active compounds produced by Trametes versicolor can restrict the growth of mycotoxigenic fungi and the biosynthesis of their secondary metabolites (e.g., mycotoxins). Specifically, we identified Tramesan: a 23 kDa α-heteropolysaccharide secreted by T. versicolor that acts as a pro-antioxidant molecule in animal cells, fungi, and plants. Foliar-spray of Tramesan (3.3 μM) on SLBC-susceptible durum wheat cultivars, before inoculation of causal agents of Stagonospora Nodorum Blotch (SNB) and Septoria Tritici Blotch (STB), significantly decreased disease incidence both in controlled conditions (SNB: −99%, STB: −75%) and field assays (SNB: −25%, STB: −30%). We conducted these tests were conducted under controlled conditions as well as in field. We showed that Tramesan increased the levels of jasmonic acid (JA), a plant defense-related hormone. Tramesan also increased the early expression (24 hours after inoculation—hai) of plant defense genes such as PR4 for SNB infected plants, and RBOH, PR1, and PR9 for STB infected plants. These results suggest that Tramesan protects wheat by eliciting plant defenses, since it has no direct fungicidal activity. In field experiments, the yield of durum wheat plants treated with Tramesan was similar to that of healthy untreated plots. These results encourage the use of Tramesan to protect durum wheat against SLBC.

Viticulture has been an important economic sector for centuries. In recent decades, global wine production has fluctuated between 250 and almost 300 million hectoliters, and in 2022, the value of wine exports reached EUR 37.6 billion. Climate change and the associated higher temperatures could favor the occurrence of ochratoxin A (OTA) in wine. OTA is a mycotoxin produced by some species of the genera Aspergillus and Penicillium and has nephrotoxic, immunotoxic, teratogenic, hepatotoxic, and carcinogenic effects on animals and humans. The presence of this toxin in wine is related to the type of wine—red wines are more frequently contaminated with OTA—and the geographical location of the vineyard. In Europe, the lower the latitude, the greater the risk of OTA contamination in wine. However, climate change could increase the risk of OTA contamination in wine in other regions. Due to their toxic effects, the development of effective and environmentally friendly methods to prevent, decontaminate, and degrade OTA is essential. This review summarises the available research on biological aspects of OTA prevention, removal, and degradation.

Culture filtrates of Lentinus edodes (Berk.) Sing, (shiitake mushroom) added to potato dextrose broth inoculated with a toxigenic strain of Aspergillus parasiticus Speare showed an inhibiting effect on aflatoxin production. Filtrates from 30- (steady conditions) and 15-(shaken conditions)-day-old cultures were the most efficient in inhibiting aflatoxin production by A. parasiticus. Mycelia of L. edodes, incubated on wheat seeds for 20 and 30 days and subsequently inoculated with A. parasiticus, delayed fungal growth of the toxigenic strain and inhibited aflatoxin production. L. edodes represents a promising medicinal mushroom to control the infection by A. parasiticus and the aflatoxin production

Wild medicinal mushrooms are known to contain significant amounts of essential biochemical compounds with potential health benefits. Therefore, this study aimed to investigate the metal elements and biochemical constituents of wild turkey tail (Trametes versicolor) mushrooms collected from the Shivalik foothills of the Himalayas, India. Mushroom samples were purposefully collected from eleven (11) sampling sites located in three (3) districts of North Indian states (Uttar Pradesh and Uttarakhand). The results of this study indicated that wild T. versicolor showed the presence of eight metal elements (Cd: 0.011–0.139, Cr: 0.225–0.680, Cu: 1.073–3.108, Fe: 4.273–8.467, Mn: 2.157–3.892, Zn: 3.069–4.478, Ni: 0.065–0.186, and Co: 0.035–0.120 mg/kg). The samples also showed a significant presence of total phenolics (51.81–70.13 mg GAE/g), flavonoids (9.02–14.01 mg QE/mg), lycopene (0.02–0.08 mg/g), and β-carotene (0.31–0.72 mg/g). The proximate analysis also showed that T. versicolor is a good source of carbohydrate (38.33%–41.94%), protein (8.12%–11.06%), fat (0.93%–1.26%), moisture (63.80%–70.64%), dietary fiber (9.59%–14.30%), and total ash (2.42%–3.48%). In addition, gas chromatography (GC-FID) analysis revealed the presence of the five most dominant fatty acids, including linoleic acid (18:2n6c), palmitic acid (C16:0), oleic acid (18:1n9c), linolenic acid (18:3n3), and stearic acid (C18:0). Principal component analysis (PCA) and hierarchical cluster analysis (HCA) were helpful in identifying variations and similarities among different constituents of T. versicolor at selected sampling sites. Due to its low metal element content and rich biochemical profile, T. versicolor was highlighted in this research for its significant potential as a functional food or nutraceutical ingredient. This work promotes its sustainable use in the healthcare and food industries and lays the groundwork for further research into its therapeutic applications.

Food and feed safety are of paramount relevance in everyday life. The awareness that different chemicals, e.g., those largely used in agriculture, could present both environmental problems and health hazards, has led to a large limitation of their use. Chemicals were also the main tool in a control of fungal pathogens and their secondary metabolites, mycotoxins. There is a drive to develop more environmentally friendly, “green”, approaches to control mycotoxin contamination of foodstuffs. Different mushroom metabolites showed the potential to act as control agents against mycotoxin production. The use of a polysaccharide, Tramesan, extracted from the basidiomycete Trametes versicolor, for controlling biosynthesis of aflatoxin B1 and ochratoxin A, has been previously discussed. In this study, oligosaccharides obtained from Tramesan were evaluated. The purified exopolysaccharide of T. versicolor was partially hydrolyzed and separated by chromatography into fractions from disaccharides to heptasaccharides. Each fraction was individually tested for mycotoxin inhibition in A. flavus and A. carbonarius. Fragments smaller than seven units showed no significant effect on mycotoxin inhibition; heptasaccharides showed inhibitory activity of up to 90% in both fungi. These results indicated that these oligosaccharides could be used as natural alternatives to crop protection chemicals for controlling these two mycotoxins.