Many forested landscapes around the world are severely altered during mining for their rich mineral and energy reserves. Herein we provide an overview of the challenges inherent in efforts to restore mined landscapes to functioning forest ecosystems and present a synthesis of recent progress using examples from North America, Europe and Australia. We end with recommendations for further elaboration of the Forestry Reclamation Approach emphasizing: (1) Landform reconstruction modelled on natural systems and creation of topographic heterogeneity at a variety of scales; (2) Use and placement of overburden, capping materials and organic amendments to facilitate soil development processes and create a suitable rooting medium for trees; (3) Alignment of landform, topography, overburden, soil and tree species to create a diversity of target ecosystem types; (4) Combining optimization of stock type and planting techniques with early planting of a diversity of tree species; (5) Encouraging natural regeneration as much as possible; (6) Utilizing direct placement of forest floor material combined with seeding of native species to rapidly re-establish native forest understory vegetation; (7) Selective on-going management to encourage development along the desired successional trajectory. Successful restoration of forest ecosystems after severe mining disturbance will be facilitated by a regulatory framework that acknowledges and accepts variation in objectives and outcomes.

Conventions and policies for biodiversity conservation and climate change mitigation state the need for increased protection, restoration and climate change adaptation of forests. Much degraded land may be targeted for large-scale forest restoration, yet challenges include costs, a shortage of regeneration material and the need for restored forests to serve as a resource for communities. To ensure ecosystem function for the future, forest restoration programs must: (1) learn from the past; (2) integrate ecological knowledge; (3) advance regeneration techniques and systems; (4) overcome biotic and abiotic disturbances and (5) adapt for future forest landscapes. Historical forest conditions, while site-specific, may help to identify the processes that leave long-term legacies in current forests and to understand tree migration biology/population dynamics and their relationship with climate change. Ecological theory around plant–plant interactions has shown the importance of negative (competition) and positive (facilitation) interactions for restoration, which will become more relevant with increasing drought due to climate change. Selective animal browsing influences plant–plant interactions and challenges restoration efforts to establish species-rich forests; an integrated approach is needed to simultaneously manage ungulate populations, landscape carrying capacity and browse-tolerant regeneration. A deeper understanding of limiting factors that affect plant establishment will facilitate nursery and site preparation systems to overcome inherent restoration challenges. Severe anthropogenic disturbances connected to global change have created unprecedented pressure on forests, necessitating novel ecological engineering, genetic conservation of tree species and landscape-level approaches that focus on creating functional ecosystems in a cost-effective manner.

Summary: We propose a conceptual framework for restoration of threatened plant species that encourages integration of technological, ecological, and social spheres. A sphere encompasses ideas relevant to restoration and the people working within similar areas of influence or expertise. Increased capacity within a sphere and a higher degree of coalescing among spheres predict a greater probability of successful restoration. We illustrate this withCastanea dentata, a foundation forest tree in North America that was annihilated by an introduced pathogen; the species is a model that effectively merges biotechnology, reintroduction biology, and restoration ecology. Because ofC. dentata's ecological and social importance, scientists have aggressively pursued blight resistance through various approaches. We summarize recent advancements in tree breeding and biotechnology that have emerged fromC. dentataresearch, and describe their potential to bring new tools to bear on socio‐ecological restoration problems. Successful reintroduction ofC. dentatawill also depend upon an enhanced understanding of its ecology within contemporary forests. We identify a critical need for a deeper understanding of societal influences that may affect setting and achieving realistic restoration goals.Castanea dentatamay serve as an important model to inform reintroduction of threatened plant species in general and foundation forest trees in particular. Contents Summary 378 I. Castanea dentataas a model at the intersection of reintroduction biology and restoration ecology 379 II. Technological approaches for recovery ofCastanea dentata 381 III. Ecology of the historically dominantCastanea dentatain contemporary forests 385 IV. Societal challenges for successful reintroduction ofCastanea dentata 388 V. Conclusions 389 Acknowledgements 389 References 389