Viral infections remain a global public health concern and cause a severe societal and economic burden. At the organismal level, the innate immune system is essential for the detection of viruses and constitutes the first line of defense. Viral components are sensed by host pattern recognition receptors (PRRs). PRRs can be further classified based on their localization into Toll-like receptors (TLRs), C-type lectin receptors (CLR), retinoic acid-inducible gene-I (RIG-I)-like receptors (RLRs), NOD-like receptors (NLRs) and cytosolic DNA sensors (CDS). TLR and RLR signaling results in production of type I interferons (IFNα and -β) and pro-inflammatory cytokines in a cell-specific manner, whereas NLR signaling leads to the production of interleukin-1 family proteins. On the other hand, CLRs are capable of sensing glycans present in viral pathogens, which can induce phagocytic, endocytic, antimicrobial, and pro- inflammatory responses. Peripheral immune sensing of viruses and the ensuing cytokine response can significantly affect the central nervous system (CNS). But viruses can also directly enter the CNS via a multitude of routes, such as the nasal epithelium, along nerve fibers connecting to the periphery and as cargo of infiltrating infected cells passing through the blood brain barrier, triggering innate immune sensing and cytokine responses directly in the CNS. Here, we review mechanisms of viral immune sensing and currently recognized consequences for the CNS of innate immune responses to viruses.

Chronic wounds remain a persistent clinical challenge due to their complex pathology involving prolonged inflammation, microbial biofilms, and impaired tissue regeneration. Emerging research highlights the dynamic role of the human microbiome in modulating immune responses and influencing wound healing outcomes. Disruptions to this microbial balance, termed dysbiosis, not only exacerbate infection but also hinder therapeutic efficacy. Recent advances in smart and sustainable nanotechnology offer promising avenues to address these challenges. By integrating microbiome-sensitive mechanisms with targeted delivery systems, bio-based nanomaterials can overcome multidrug resistance, modulate inflammation, and accelerate healing. This review explores the molecular interplay between chronic infections and host immunity, highlights next-generation nanomaterials for regenerative applications, and proposes a sustainable paradigm that bridges clinical effectiveness with environmental responsibility.

This review examines engineered combination nanomedicine strategies that integrate co-delivery platforms, tumor microenvironment targeting, and predictive translational models to overcome cancer drug resistance.

Environmental contamination has increased steadily over recent decades due to industrialization, urban expansion, intensive agriculture, and improper waste management. As a result, a wide range of pollutants, including per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), microplastics, pharmaceutical residues, endocrine-disrupting compounds, and heavy metals are now frequently detected in water, soil, and sediment systems worldwide. Many of these contaminants are chemically stable, persist for long periods in the environment, and can accumulate in living organisms, posing significant toxicological and ecological risks and making their removal particularly challenging. Engineered nanomaterials have emerged as promising tools for pollutant removal because of their tunable surface chemistry, and ability to interact with contaminants through multiple mechanisms. This review examines recent advances in eco-engineered nanomaterials for environmental remediation, with particular attention to green strategies, major material classes and their underlying removal mechanisms. Across the studies discussed, adsorption-based and hybrid systems frequently report high removal efficiencies for metals and dyes under controlled conditions, while framework-based materials show improved selectivity toward persistent pollutants (including PFAS) through combined electrostatic, hydrophobic, and hydrogen-bonding interactions. Photocatalytic and redox-active systems are highlighted for accelerating the degradation of recalcitrant organics through reactive oxygen species–mediated pathways. Recoverable designs, including magnetic and scaffold-immobilized composites, are also emphasized because they are often reported to retain substantial performance over multiple reuse cycles. Sustainability and deployment challenges are also discussed, including life-cycle assessment, material reuse, environmental fate, toxicity risks, and data-driven strategies for design and optimization.

Despite major advances in oncology, cancer therapy continues to face persistent challenges due to intratumoral heterogeneity, drug resistance, and the poor clinical translation of experimental therapeutics. Conventional preclinical models such as 2D cultures and animal systems often fail to accurately recapitulate the tumor microenvironment immune contexture, and patient-specific variability limiting their predictive power. While nanomedicine and advanced drug delivery platforms offer promising solutions, their translational success is hindered by insufficient integration with physiologically relevant tumor models. In this review, we critically examine how patient-derived organoids derived from patient tumors serve as next-generation platforms for modeling cancer heterogeneity, therapeutic response, and biomarker discovery. We further explore how the integration of PDOs with functional biomaterials, extracellular matrix mimetics, and organ-on-chip systems enables dynamic co-culture environments that capture tumor–stroma–immune interactions with high fidelity. By linking the biological underpinnings of resistance, such as genetic mutations, altered signaling, metabolic rewiring, and immune evasion, with smart biomaterial design and drug screening workflows, we propose a unified roadmap for precision oncology. Additionally, we highlight the emergence of PDO biobanks, co-culture innovations, and high-throughput phenotypic screening as essential tools for improving clinical translation. This interdisciplinary synthesis underscores the transformative potential of PDO-based platforms in accelerating personalized cancer therapy.