Effective and environmentally benign removal of polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF) binders from spent battery electrodes remains a critical hurdle in sustainable recycling, primarily due to issues related to the mitigation of fluorinated compound emissions. This work evaluates PVDF binder removal from cathode active material using either a green solvent-based dissolution process or pyrolysis, analyzed by time-of-flight secondary ion mass spectrometry (ToF-SIMS). The solvent pretreatment involved mixing dihydrolevoglucosenone (Cyrene™) with PVDF-coated NMC811 at 100 °C, followed by hot filtration to separate the Cyrene-PVDF solution. Pyrolysis was conducted at 800 °C under an argon atmosphere. Positive ToF-SIMS spectra for Cyrene showed characteristic peaks at ketene (42 m/z) and 1,3-dioxole (86 m/z), along with intense C₂H₃O⁺, C₃H₃O⁺, C₄H₇⁺, and C₃H₅O⁺ peaks. The characteristic peaks used to identify PVDF were C₃H₂F₅⁺ (133 m/z), C₃H₂F₃⁺ (95 m/z), and C₃HF₄⁺ (113 m/z). Both processes resulted in PVDF removal, with pyrolysis demonstrating higher effectiveness. Particle agglomeration was observed in both pretreated NMC811 samples, however agglomeration was more pronounced with Cyrene pretreatment due to PVDF redeposition. Following pyrolysis, PVDF was transformed into a defluorinated carbonaceous material.

There is an increasing demand for the development of efficient and sustainable battery recycling processes. Currently, many recycling processes rely on toxic inorganic acids to recover materials from high-value battery chemistries such as lithium nickel manganese cobalt oxides (NMCs) and lithium cobalt oxide (LCOs). However, as cell manufacturers seek more cost-effective battery chemistries, the value of the spent battery value chain is increasingly diluted by chemistries such as lithium iron phosphate (LFPs). These cheaper alternatives present a difficulty when recycling, as current recycling processes are geared towards dealing with high-value chemistries; thus, the current processes become less economical. To date, much research is focused on treating a single battery chemistry; however, often, the feed material entering a battery recycling facility is contaminated with other battery chemistries, e.g., LFP feed contaminated with NMC, LCO, or LMOs. This research aims to selectively leach various battery chemistries out of a mixed feed material with the aid of a green organic acid, namely oxalic acid. When operating at the optimal conditions (2% solids, 0.25 M oxalic acid, natural pH around 1.15, 25 °C, 60 min), this research has proven that oxalic acid can be used to selectively dissolve 95.58% and 93.57% of Li and P, respectively, from a mixed LFP-NMC mixed feed, all while only extracting 12.83% of Fe and 8.43% of Mn, with no Co and Ni being detected in solution. Along with the high degree of selectivity, this research has also demonstrated, through varying the pH, that the selectivity of the leaching system can be altered. It was determined that at pH 0.5 the system dissolved both the NMC and LFP chemistries; at a pH of 1.15, the LFP chemistry (Li and P) was selectively targeted. Finally, at a pH of 4, the NMC chemistry (Ni, Co and Mn) was selectively dissolved.

Over the next 5–10 years, the feedstock to lithium-ion battery recycling facilities will shift from Co- and Ni-rich chemistries to lower-value battery chemistries, such as lithium iron phosphate (LFP). Traditional recycling processes use toxic and corrosive inorganic acids for leaching, generating toxic waste streams. The low-value feedstocks will be LFP-rich with contamination from lithium cobalt oxide (LCO) and lithium–nickel–manganese–cobalt oxide (NMC) battery chemistries. Overall, the lower-value feedstock coupled with the need to reduce environmentally damaging waste streams requires the development of robust, green leaching processes capable of selectively targeting the LFP and LCO/NMC battery chemistries. This research concluded that a first-stage oxalic acid leach could selectively extract Al, Li, and P from the industrially sourced LFP-rich black mass. When operating at the optimal conditions (0.5 M oxalic acid, 5% solids, pH 0.8, and an agitation speed of 600 rpm), >99% of the Li and P and >97% of the Al were selectively extracted after 2 h, while Mn, Fe, Cu, Ni, and Co extractions were kept relatively low, namely, at 19%, <3%, 97% of the Co, >77% of the Ni, and 41% of the Mn were extracted, while the co-extraction percentages of Cu, Fe, and Al were <27%, <4%, and <2%.

Process intensification (PI) is a commonly used term in the chemical processing industry. When the concept of PI was first introduced in the late 1970s within the Imperial Chemical Industries (ICI) company, the main impetus was to reduce the processing cost without impairing the production rate. Neoteric media present as alternatives in chemical processing include gas-expanded liquids, ionic liquids, subcritical water, and combination of gas-expanded liquids and ionic liquids. The applications of neoteric media include particle engineering for improved bioavailability, controlled release of therapeutic implants, pharmaceutical formulations, extraction of natural products, nano-carriers for drug delivery, sterilisation of implants, and chemical reactions. This paper provides an overview of the use of these neoteric media.