Identification and assessment of socio-cultural values of ecosystem services are increasingly important for the planning and management of forest resources. Key information necessary is how different forest user groups perceive and prioritize different ecosystem services based on their local setting. We assessed the socio-cultural values of ecosystem services of high-altitude oak forests in Western Bhutan using participatory approaches with two important forest users: local communities and forest experts. We found that these forests serve as a pool of 22 ecosystem services under four MEA categories of provisioning (9), regulating (8), supporting (2), and cultural (3) services. Fresh water was unanimously identified as the most valuable service, as well as the most vulnerable, by both the groups. The priorities of local communities inclined towards provisioning and cultural services due to their dependence on these services for their livelihood and wellbeing. Forest experts’ priorities were more evenly spread over three categories of services: provisioning, regulating, and supporting services, reflecting their broader interest in resource management, biodiversity conservation, and climate change mitigation. Several regulating and supporting services were not easily identified by many villagers, suggesting that bridging the priorities of local interests with broader national forestry goals may require public partnerships and integrated decision-making about the entire suite of ecosystem services. Several management interventions proposed by the groups were presented for consideration by local users, scientists, and policy makers. For all ongoing and future ecosystem service assessments, we recommend the integration of socio-cultural values with biophysical and monetary assessments to fully value the benefits from the high-altitude oak forests.

Macro-invertebrates form an integral part of aquatic systems, and assessment of macro-invertebrate communities is one of the best ways to monitor the health of a stream. Despite this, stream monitoring of macro-invertebrates has been extremely limited in Bhutan. A study was conducted to generate baseline information on macro-invertebrate diversity in the Phobjikha valley, covering community composition and seasonal variation in diversity during post and pre-monsoon seasons. From a total of 244 units sampled in streams, 50 families from 13 orders were recorded. The dominant order overall was Ephemeroptera (31%), which also dominated the pre-monsoon assessment (33%), while Trichoptera (39%) dominated the post-monsoon assessment. The pre-monsoon assessment recorded two additional orders, Caenogastropoda and Veneroida. There was no significant difference in diversity between the post-monsoon and pre-monsoon assessments (p˃0.3), but a significant difference in species diversity between seasons was observed in pools and riffles. Physicochemical parameters indicated that pH, electrical conductivity and salinity were within favorable ranges for macro-invertebrates. Further studies of other habitats in different seasons will produce a more comprehensive understanding of macro-invertebrate diversity.

Golden langurs (Trachypithecus geei) in Bhutan have received little research attention in the anthropic environments where most of the population lives. We recorded group sizes and compositions and documented sleep sites for 24 golden langur groups living in a biological corridor (N = 9) and near a human settlement (N = 15) in central Bhutan. We used scan sampling to document behaviors and direct observation and camera traps to record potential predators, and we recorded occurrences of mortality, including two cases of electrocution, one case of roadkill, and one langur skull recovered from a possible leopard prey cache. Golden langur groups were on average significantly larger near human settlements (13.73 individuals) than in the biological corridor (9.55 individuals), and the adult sex ratio was greater near human settlements. The golden langurs usually slept in more than one tree, and our preliminary results indicated rare re-use of the same sleep site. Golden langurs in our study area most often slept in Sapium insigne trees. Sleep trees’ mean DBH was 51.58 cm and the mean height was 19.37 m. We intend for our preliminary data to establish the foundation for future research on the behavior and ecology of golden langurs in Bhutan.

The Oleps are the first human inhabitants of Bhutan and the country’s last remaining hunter-gatherers. We conducted a preliminary study into the meaning of the traditional Bhutanese saying tog-ge-teng-nang-gong; gong-ge-teng-nang-thee (Ole) and tag-ge-ta-lay-gung; gung ge-ta-lay-theb (Dzongkha). Tag in Dzongkha refers to Bengal tiger (Panthera tigris) and gung refers to clouded leopard (Neofelis nebulosa). The saying describes the existence of a species, which Oleps people believe is the clouded leopard, that is superior to the apex predator the tiger. The saying is further elaborated as gung-gi-ta-lay-theb (Dzongkha), which means that a skilled human hunter is superior to the clouded leopard. We used semi-structured interviews to ask 19 Oleps people to explain this traditional saying and narrate the beliefs embedded in it. Participants related the saying to their views of the clouded leopard, and we explored how these views might influence the current conservation status of clouded leopards living in the Oleps’ locality. Our interviews showed that Oleps revered and respected clouded leopards, but they also viewed them and other wild cats as harmful to livestock, and some expressed a desire to acquire clouded leopard pelts or to keep them as pets. Indigenous knowledge and beliefs are important to consider in the development of a conservation plan for clouded leopards. We recommend that Oleps’ sayings and stories be documented for posterity and that conservationists continue to engage in dialog with Oleps people to better understand the effects clouded leopards and other wild cats have on their livelihoods.