Climate change is unequivocal. Farmers are increasingly vulnerable to floods and drought. In this article, the negative impact of climate hazards on rice cultivation in the Tonle Sap and Mekong River influenced by climatic variability between 1994 and 2018 are analyzed. A cohort of 536 households from four Cambodian districts participated in household surveys designed to consider how various vulnerability factors interacted across this time series. It was found that: (i) The major climate hazards affecting rice production between 1994 and 2018 were frequent and extreme flood and drought events caused by rainfall variability; (ii) In 2018, extreme flood and drought occurred in the same rice cultivation cycle. The impact caused by each hazard across each region were similar; (iii) An empirical model was used to demonstrate that drought events tend to limit access to irrigation, impact rice production, and result in an increased prevalence of water-borne diseases. Flood events cause reduced rice production, damage to housing, and impede children from accessing education. The impact of drought events on rice production was found to be more severe than flood events; however, each climatic hazard caused physical, economic, social, and environmental vulnerabilities. It is recommended that sufficient human and financial resources are distributed to local authorities to implement adaptation measures that prepare rice farmers for flood and drought events and promote equitable access to water resources.

Rice is not merely a staple food but an important source of income in Cambodia. Rapid socioeconomic development in the country affects farmers’ management practices, and rice production has increased almost three-fold over two decades. However, detailed information about the recent changes in rice production is quite limited and mainly obtained from interviews and statistical data. Here, we analyzed MODIS LAI data (MCD152H) from 2003 to 2019 to quantify rice production changes in Pursat Province, one of the great rice-producing areas in Cambodia. Although the LAI showed large variations, the data clearly indicate that a major shift occurred in approximately 2010 after applying smoothing methods (i.e., hierarchical clustering and the moving average). This finding is consistent with the results of the interviews with the farmers, which indicate that earlier-maturing cultivars had been adopted. Geographical variations in the LAI pattern were illustrated at points analyzed along a transverse line from the mountainside to the lakeside. Furthermore, areas of dry season cropping were detected by the difference in monthly averaged MODIS LAI data between January and April, which was defined as the dry season rice index (DSRI) in this study. Consequently, three different types of dry season cropping areas were recognized by nonhierarchical clustering of the annual LAI transition. One of the cropping types involved an irrigation-water-receiving area supported by canal construction. The analysis of the peak LAI in the wet and dry seasons suggested that the increase in rice production was different among cropping types and that the stagnation of the improvements and the limitation of water resources are anticipated. This study provides valuable information about differences and changes in rice cropping to construct sustainable and further-improved rice production strategies.

In the northeastern Cambodian province of Ratanakiri, agricultural expansion has been a significant factor in the decline of forest coverage. As forests are essential for rural populations’ livelihoods and a healthy environment, this study presents the dynamics of this transformed forest landscape resulting from changes in farming, land accessibility and policy changes. A multitemporal dataset consisting of two ALOS/AVNIR-2 images in 2007 and 2011 were used to compare changes in land cover, and the panchromatic image of 2012 Worldview-1 acquired at 100 km 2 was used to access specific land-use patterns. Qualitative research methods ranging from an ethnographic method to qualitative data analysis were performed for gathering in-situ information to understand human-induced changes in land use. The results illustrate three triggers found at the local level, actively changing the forest landscape: (1) indigenous people transforming the swidden farming system to the mono-cropping system without external support and agricultural market information, (2) chaotic property market resulting from migrants purchasing existing farms or forest lands from indigenous people via land brokers, and (3) the introduction of land concessions by government via the 2001 Land Law, which allows agricultural cooperation to develop plantations.

The dependencies of the planting date on rainfall and soil moisture in paddy fields in Cambodia were analyzed to quantify farmers’ empirical knowledge regarding their decision of the planting date. Remote sensing data from multiple satellites covering the 2003–2019 period were analyzed. The planting dates in rain-fed paddies ranged from April to August, with large spatial variations and year-to-year fluctuations. In years when planting was suppressed in April and May, planting was extensively enhanced in June and August compared to normal years, and vice versa. Over the northeastern side of Tonle Sap Lake and south of Phnom Penh city, the areas planted in April and May were found to have positive correlations with rainfall and soil moisture, suggesting that wetter-than-average conditions encouraged farmers to plant earlier in the season. In contrast, this relationship was unclear on the western side of Tonle Sap Lake, where the rainfall amounts were larger throughout the year than in other areas in Cambodia. In this region, the relationship between the planting area and soil water availability was either unclear or was even slightly negative from June to August. Since more frequent dry spells have been detected after the onset of the rainy season in recent years, further studies and disseminations of potential changes in dry spells are important for the agronomic adaptation of planting dates under climate change.

Since the end of the Civil War, Cambodia has pursued economic development to enhance livelihoods, particularly in rural areas, where land is a critical resource. Previous studies have indicated that the country has changed land use and land cover. However, they have not explained how these changes can improve the livelihoods of local communities, thereby mitigating their negative impacts through an asset-based approach. Battambang Province, in the northwestern region, was the battleground until political integration in 1996. Since then, the province has been home to immigrants exploring the lands for livelihood. Thus, this study aims to examine agricultural livelihoods in the villages of Dei Kraham and Ou Toek Thla, located west of Battambang Town. These were selected because of their common characteristics. Adopting a quantitative approach and a sustainable livelihood framework, this study employed stratified random sampling to select 123 families for interviews across three population subgroups: old settlers, new settlers, and young settlers. In situ information was collected using structured questionnaires and analyzed using Kruskal–Wallis tests to assess the livelihood assets underlying the physical, natural, human, financial, and social capital. The statistical analysis results reveal no significant differences (p-value = 0.079) in livelihood assets between the strata at the village level. Meanwhile, significant differences were observed in physical, human, and financial capital between old and young settlers when examining the subgroups (p-value 0.000). The extent of the land resources held by old settlers was associated with household income and livelihoods related to agriculture. Based on livelihood asset scores, nearly half of the new settlers (0.49–0.5) and a quarter of the young settlers (0.47) are vulnerable groups requiring support. The youth will soon face an uncertain future if they do not prioritize education.

Improving agricultural research and education is highly recommended to control agricultural development and environmental sustainability in Cambodia. Agricultural research mostly focuses on interviews with farmers as a first measure in developing countries, but a lack of quantitative accuracy remains one of the major constraints. In this situation, we conducted educational activities for master’s degree students of the Royal University of Agriculture (RUA) to append agronomic information with popular equipment in interdisciplinary fieldwork in Pursat Province, Cambodia. For the popular equipment, an RGB camera, a reflectometer as well as pH and EC meters were selected. The agronomic information collected by the students supported the results obtained during the interviews. For example, the difference in fertilizer application between the irrigated and nonirrigated areas was confirmed by the soil ammonium concentration evaluated with a reflectometer; the difference in rice growth among water conditions was confirmed by the leaf area percentage evaluated with an RGB camera. Since the majority of the students lacked agricultural and statistical knowledge, the agronomic information quantified by popular equipment provided proper educational materials. The interdisciplinary fieldwork also indicated serious problems in the study area, such as low beneficial crop production and environmental sustainability. To overcome these problems, improving agricultural education is required to foster skillful agricultural professionals, and the quantification of agronomic information is an essential issue.