Agricultural diversification efforts towards sustainable agriculture generates environmental and economic benefits. Climate change and agricultural production are characterized by a complex cause-effect relationship. In the present study, the primary dataset is collected through an interview-based survey from 410 farmers in 3 districts located in different agro-ecological zones of Punjab, Pakistan. Detailed analysis is conducted by employing the Gaussian treatment effects approach. Results of the study show that the farmers who adopted agricultural diversification to mitigate the impact of climate change were less and insignificantly benefited e.g., on an average of RS 95,260 (US $635) per annum whereas non-adopted farmers lost their farm income on an average of RS 115,750 (US $772) per annum if they had practiced the agricultural diversification. Moreover, determinants of agricultural diversification such as demographic and institutional indicators were significant and larger effects to adopt as compared to social indicators. This study suggests that policies should be designed in the regional context particularly related to the improvement in demographic characteristics and institutional factors such as providing subsidies, training, and awareness to the farmers, particularly to those who practice agricultural diversification. These measures will help to raise the farmers’ adaptive capacity for the adoption of agricultural diversification, and it will enable them to generate tangible benefits by increasing income through adopting sustainable agricultural livelihood.

Climate-change-related impacts on the agriculture sector have been intensifying in the Asian region particularly for developing countries. In order to encourage innovative adaptation practices, it is critical to understand the farmers’ perspectives on the possibility of adopting climate-smart agriculture (CSA) measures and the obstacles they face. However, limited studies have considered how farmers respond to climate change impacts, and concerning to this, the opportunities in the relevance of resilience via adaptive capacity (AC) were addressed. This study investigates the adoption of climate-smart agriculture in Punjab, Pakistan by using a survey of 420 farmers, with a view to understanding the farmers’ practices, adaptive capacity to respond, and willingness for the adoption of climate-smart agriculture measures to mitigate the climate change impact. Driving factors of the farm households’ intended to the adoption of climate-smart agriculture were examined using a logistic model. The results of the study showed that the drivers of adaptive capacity such as the human, physical, natural, financial and social capacity of the farm households were significantly determinant to the possibility of adopting climate-smart agriculture measures. Further, we also identified lack of institutional support and a lack of information were the major obstacles for adopting these innovative measures. This study suggested that climate-policy should be designed in a regional context specifically focusing on the institutional services and access to the resources. It is the best way to increase the acceptance for the adoption of these innovative measures by increasing the farmers’ adaptive capacity endowment.

Long-term changes in climate variability, vulnerability, a rise in average temperature, and changes in precipitation patterns threaten crop productivity, food security, and the livelihoods of people across the globe. Lower crop yields with higher dependence on food imports, global economic shocks, and climate change exacerbate more challenges to food security, specifically in developing countries. Therefore, adaptation to climate change is necessary to promote farmers’ sustainable livelihoods and mitigate carbon emissions. The adoption of Climate-Smart Agriculture (CSA) practices can potentially help reduce greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions without compromising agricultural production. To confront the challenges regarding the adoption of CSA practices, this study reviews the relevant literature and suggests policy recommendations on how socioeconomic determinants and considerations affect sustainable agriculture development systems. It focuses on the optimization problem of a farmer as a social planner, in which a farmer seeks to maximize his welfare objectives now and in the future. Farmers’ choices of CSA adoption, as well as their adaptive capacity and adaptation constraints, are discussed. This study has implications for policymakers in terms of raising the frequency of adopters through innovations and policy design.