The objective of this study was to determine the influence of two types of dryers (hot air oven and vacuum dryer) and the yellow berry percentage (1.75%, 36.25%, 43.25%) on the drying process and phytochemical content of bulgur. Results showed that the Midilli model successfully described the moisture diffusion during drying at 60 °C in all bulgur samples, where an increase in yellow berry percentage generated an increase in moisture content. Effective diffusion coefficient (D_eff) increased significantly (p ≤ 0.05) from 7.05 × 10⁻¹¹ to 7.82 × 10⁻¹¹ (m².s⁻¹) and from 7.73 × 10⁻¹¹ to 7.82 × 10⁻¹¹ (m².s⁻¹) for the hot air oven and vacuum dryer, respectively. However, it decreased significantly with a decrease of yellow berry percentage. It was concluded that the vacuum dryer provided faster and more effective drying than the hot air oven. Total polyphenol (TPC), total flavonoid (TFC), and yellow pigment contents (YPC) of bulgur were investigated. TPC ranged between 0.54 and 0.64 (mg GAE/g dm); TFC varied from 0.48 to 0.61 (mg QE/g dm). The YPC was found to be between 0.066 and 0.079 (mg ß-carotene/100g dm). Yellow berry percentage positively and significantly affected the TPC, TFC, and YPC contents due to the hard separation of the outer layers from the starchy grain during the debranning step.

In this study, conditions for producing high-quality bulgur were improved by studying the effects of cooking time (CT), moisture content before debranning (MC) and debranning time (DT). Bulgur quality was then assessed based on yield, colour and ash content. A central composite plan and an analysis of variance were used to test the adequacy, significance and meaningfulness of all the responses using the mathematical model developed. The results showed that CT had a positive effect on both bulgur yield and lightness of colour. DT had a negative effect on yield, red colour and ash content, but a positive effect on lightness (L*) of bulgur. There was a significant effect on bulgur yield and red colour (a*) due to the interaction between CT and MC. In addition, the effect of interaction of CT and DT on the later response was also significant (R²=0.95%). The optimal conditions for high-quality precooked wheat were a CT of 43 min, MC of 15.5% and a DT of 1.6 min. Under these conditions, optical microscopy observation showed the presence of an aleuronic layer, the most nutritive branny wheat layer.

Background: Bread consumption and the corresponding issue of food waste represent critical aspects of food security in the North African region, where bread remains a fundamental dietary staple. Aims: This study was designed to systematically examine bread purchasing habits, consumption patterns, and associated wastage behaviors among populations in Algeria and Tunisia, with the ultimate objective of identifying key determinants and potential areas for targeted intervention strategies. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted employing an online survey administered between September and December 2023. The study population comprised 636 respondents: 316 Algerian participants (62.8% female, 64.9% aged 25–60 years, 76% with university education) and 320 Tunisian participants (76.3% female, 76.2% aged 25–60 years, 90% with university education). Results: Survey results indicated that municipal bakeries were the predominant source of bread for Algerian respondents (40.3%), while Tunisian respondents primarily favored modern bakeries (54.5%). Bread purchasing frequency was higher in Tunisia, with 51.3% purchasing bread daily, compared to 33.8% in Algeria. Both cohorts predominantly purchased 5–6 loaves per day, a quantity significantly influenced by household size and demographic characteristics (p < 0.05). Moreover, cleanliness and hygiene emerged as the most critical purchasing criteria for both Algerian (86.4%) and Tunisian (84%) respondents. Other significant priorities included taste and flavor, valued by 77.3% of Algerians and 75% of Tunisians, and bread freshness, prioritized particularly among Algerians (59.7%). Tunisian consumers, however, prioritized raw material quality (62.2%) over factors such as proximity and product diversity. Consumption patterns revealed a significant reliance on French-style baguettes (67.5% in Algeria, 60.3% in Tunisia) and highlighted cultural differences in meal consumption. Lunch was the primary occasion for bread consumption in both Algeria (62%) and in Tunisia (57.1%). Interestingly, bread wastage, while limited, was attributed to sensory deficiencies, including staleness, suboptimal taste, and poor texture. Inaccurate quantity estimation and subsidized bread prices were identified as leading causes of waste in both countries. Despite the majority of respondents reporting the storage of leftover bread, occasional discarding remained prevalent, with 6.5% of Algerian respondents and 5.8% of Tunisian respondents consistently discarding stored bread. Significant associations were identified between demographic factors and bread wastage behaviors in both countries (p < 0.05). Conclusions: This study underscores the importance of enhancing bread quality, augmenting consumer awareness regarding optimal purchasing and storage practices, and aligning subsidy mechanisms with sustainable consumption practices to effectively reduce bread waste, thus contributing to national food security objectives. Keywords: Sustainable Development Goal SDG-12.3; Bread; Consumer Behavior; Purchasing Pattern; Food Waste Reduction.