Bacterial cellulose (BC), associated with hydroxyapatite (HA), is a hybrid scaffold that shows promise for use in bone tissue engineering, owing to its osteoconductive, osteoinductive, and osteogenic properties. The hybrid material, constituted of organic and inorganic phases, can be produced by in situ or ex situ routes via three main processes: biomimetic, immersion cycles, and chemical precipitation. This composite has exceptional properties, such as biocompatibility, mechanical strength, conformability, and elasticity, due to the synergetic effect of both phases compared to the single phase. Recent studies have reported on the usefulness of this composite with regard to the adhesion, proliferation, and migration of bone cells for bone healing. The purpose of this review is to report on the state of the art of BC/HA as a hybrid membrane, presenting its synthesis process, the major properties of the single organic and inorganic phases, and their combination, as well as characterization methods, and pre-clinical and clinical studies of bone repair. We also highlight recent progress in the development of multiphasic systems (biopolymers, nanostructures, and factor growth), focusing on the addition of metal cations to improve functionality (particularly strontium).

Despite the advent of mechanistic toxicology using omics data to link molecular perturbations with systemic outcomes, regulatory toxicology still lacks the application of mechanism‐anchored metrics from such data. This is partially because traditional gene‐centric analysis often falls short of linking molecular changes to adverse outcomes. To address this gap, BMDx2, an open‐source tool that transforms multi‐dose toxicogenomics datasets into quantitative, mechanistic evidence for human chemical safety assessment is developed. BMDx2 couples benchmark‐dose modeling with Adverse Outcome Pathway (AOP) enrichment to derive transcriptomic‐based points of departure, enabling potency ranking, chemical prioritization, and mechanistically anchored explanations of the effect of chemical exposures. BMDx2 can process a broad range of data, including DNA microarray and RNA sequencing studies. Here, case studies are used to illustrate the versatility of BMDx2 in characterizing the mechanism of action of chemicals. An initial case study on carbon nanotubes exposure applies integrative analysis of transcriptomics and genome‐wide DNA methylation data, uncovering cellular reprogramming processes underlying fibrosis. A second case study on bleomycin exposure demonstrate how transcriptomic data alone can be mapped to fibrosis‐related AOPs in a standardized, regulatory appropriate manner. Together, these examples show how BMDx2 supports the regulatory application of toxicogenomics and accelerates mechanism‐based chemical safety evaluation.