The purpose of this study was to research the relationship between executive functions and academic performance in primary education (6-12 years). Based on 21 samples (n = 7,947), a meta-analysis of random effects demonstrated a moderately significant weighted effect size (r = 0.365) and was found to be a good predictor of academic performance. For the subjects of language and mathematics, the results of the random effects model were similar and slightly higher for mathematics (r = 0.350; r = 0.365). Thus, the theory that executive functions have greater influence on mathematical performance is supported, especially in aspects such as coding, organization, and the immediate retrieval of information. Regarding the different executive function components (working memory, inhibition, cognitive flexibility, and planning), working memory had the highest presence (k = 14, n = 3,740) and predictive weight for performance, with an effect size of r = 0.370 for random effects, with a moderate level of significance. The moderating effect of variables such as gender and age were also analyzed. After performing a meta-regression, gender resulted in a value of R 2 = 0.49; the age variable was not significant. This result is especially important since age has traditionally been considered to be the moderating variable of executive functions. The review reveals a good predictive power of executive functions in the primary education stage, and it is even higher at the early ages, indicating its great significance in describing future performance. The study also revealed the competencies and specific aspects of the executive functions that affect the way in which its components intervene in the academic area, demonstrating the mediating effect of variables such as physical fitness, motor skills, and memory processes.

Recent studies highlight the effect of cognitive factors on academic achievement, ignoring motivational, emotional, and social factors. This provides the background for the present study, a meta-analysis on the relationship between academic achievement and motivational factors (motivation, self-concept, and self-esteem), emotional factors (emotional intelligence, emotional competence, and emotional well-being), and social factors (social intelligence, social competence, and social skills) in children aged 6–12 years (37 samples, n = 15,777). The methodology based on the PRISMA protocols was applied: phases of inclusion and exclusion of articles, analysis of effect size, heterogeneity, publication bias, and, finally, meta-regressions and moderation analysis. The results showed a moderate positive effect size (0.321) for motivational and social factors (0.210) and a small positive effect size (0.172) for emotional factors. The moderating effects of age (65% on social factors) and geographical area (52% on motivational factors, 17% on emotional factors, and 76% on social factors) were studied. These results highlight the importance of motivational and social factors regarding academic achievement. In addition, along with the moderating effect of age, that of geographical area emerges strongly given the diversity of contexts studied. Our results highlight the importance that these factors have on academic performance and, therefore, the need to design school plans that address the correct development of these variables.

Widespread use of the Internet in 21st century society is not risk-free. This paper studies the comorbidity of some problematic uses of Internet with depression in order to assess their correlation. With that aim, a meta-analysis of 19 samples obtained from 13 different studies (n=33,458) was carried out. The subjects of these studies are adolescents between the ages of 12 and 18 years (µ=15.68) from different cultures and continents (Europe, Euro-Asia, America and Asia). The effect size obtained from the use of a random-effects model (r=0.3, p<0.000) is significant, moderate and positive, thus confirming the relation between pathologic uses of the Internet and depression. Moreover, meta-regression test results showed that 9% of the variance (R2=0.09) is associated with the male gender, while age and culture are not significant variables. The variability rate of the studies is high (I2=87.085%), as a consequence of heterogeneity rather than publication bias, as Egger’s regression test shows (1-tailed p-value=0.25; 2-tailed p-value=0.50, and ?=1.57). Therefore, the need for specific interventions in secondary education dealing with this issue is evident to ensure that it does not extend into adult life. El uso extendido de Internet en la sociedad del siglo XXI no está exento de riesgos. El presente trabajo estudia la comorbilidad entre los usos problemáticos de Internet y la depresión con la finalidad de determinar la existencia de relación entre ambas. Para ello se ha llevado a cabo un meta-análisis, que cuenta con 19 muestras recogidas en 13 investigaciones (n=33.748), con adolescentes de entre 12 y 18 años (µ=15,68) de diferentes culturas y continentes (Europa, Euro-Asia, América y Asia). El tamaño del efecto obtenido a partir de un modelo de efectos aleatorios (r=0,3, p<0,000) es significativo, positivo y moderado confirmando la existencia de relación entre usos patológicos de Internet y depresión. Por otra parte, la meta-regresión mostró que el 9% (R2=0,09) de la varianza es explicada por el sexo masculino, mientras que la edad y la cultura no son variables significativas. La variabilidad de los estudios es elevada (I2=87,085%) siendo fruto de la heterogeneidad y no del sesgo de publicación, tal y como indicó la prueba de regresión de Egger (p-value 1 tailed=0,25; p-value 2 tailed=0,50 y ?=1,57). Se advierte la necesidad de comenzar a generar proyectos de intervención en Educación Secundaria que traten esta problemática con el objetivo de que no se extienda a la vida adulta.

The goal of the present study was to analyze the joint role that non-cognitive (motivation and self-esteem) and cognitive (verbal fluency and reasoning) factors play on academic achievement, both as a global score and in relation to specific subjects, such as language and literature and mathematics. We also analyzed the mediating role of cognitive factors. We recruited a sample of 133 primary education students (aged 6–9 years old) (47.6% girls, 52.6% boys), to whom various measures of the above-indicated variables were administered. Several predictive models were tested through a mediational regression analysis. The results indicated the relevance of intrinsic motivation together with self-esteem as predictors of academic achievement mediated by the cognitive abilities verbal fluency and reasoning. These relationships differed depending on the specific subject. We discuss the educational implications of these findings and emphasize, on the one hand, that academic achievement depends on both cognitive and non-cognitive factors and, on the other hand, the malleability of cognitive factors, as they seem to improve based on motivation and self-esteem.