Recent climate change models predict that coffee production and the livelihood of millions of farmers will be hardly affected by climate change. Climate changes pronounced in increasing temperature and rainfall variability will reduce the bio-climatic suitable areas, growth and yield of coffee and will induce the occurrence of pests and diseases. Understanding the extent of the climate-driven impact on coffee production and farmers’ adaptation strategies is vital in sustaining coffee productivity. In the form of in-depth analysis, this review begins by contextualizing climate change and coffee production and gives insight into the impact of climate change on coffee suitability areas, growth, yield and the incidence of pests and diseases. It further examines the adaptation strategies pursued by farmers to reduce the impacts of climate change. Site-specific adaptation strategies implemented by farmers to minimize detrimental effects of climate change include (i) selecting appropriate shade tree species and their optimal management, (ii) farmers training, (iii) soil fertility maintenance and protection and (iv) pests and diseases management. Moreover, improving farmers’ access to weather, fair market and technology will enhance their adaptive capacity to climate change. Finally, designing adaptation policies and building the existing practices help the small farmers to pursue climate-resilient coffee production.

Vitellaria paradoxa (C.F.Gaertn.) is a multi-purpose tree species distributed in a narrow band across sub-Saharan Africa. The species is integrated into cropping and agroforestry systems as a nutritional and economic resource, which provides a range of environmental services. Integration of the species into land-use systems provides an essential source of livelihoods and income for local populations. The economic potential of the shea butter tree derives from its edible products, which also serve cosmetic and pharmaceutical applications. To understand the current state of knowledge about V. paradoxa, this paper summarizes information about the ecology, population structure, and genetic diversity of the species, also considering compositional variation in the pulp and kernels, management practices, and efforts towards its domestication. Despite the great potential of the shea butter tree, there are some gaps in the understanding of the genetics of the species. This review presents up-to-date information related to the species for further domestication and breeding purposes.

The objective of this paper was to assess the influence of single standing shade trees in cocoa agroforestry systems on soil moisture and light availability for cocoa in the dry seasons and how these environmental factors affect potential pod yields of cocoa. The research was conducted in a moist semi-deciduous forest zone of Ghana. Seven different shade trees that were commonly found in cocoa systems were selected. An effect ratio was used to compare tree sub-canopy effects to the open area effects. Morinda lucida (0.19), Spathodea campanulata (0.16) and Ficus capensis (0.13) showed favourable soil moisture conditions, however Citrus sinensis (-0.26) revealed a lower soil moisture content in the sub-canopy. Entandrophragma angolense and Terminalia superba had the highest transmitted percentage light of 69.2% and 67.1% respectively and the lowest being Mangifera indica (3%). The potential pod yields of cocoa were higher under Morinda lucida (0.40), Terminalia superba (0.40) and Entandrophragma angolense (0.35) but lowest under Mangifera indica (-0.55). Morinda lucida, Spathodea campanulata, Entandrophragma angolense and Terminalia superba in cocoa agroforestry systems potentially ensure higher soil moisture content and light availability in the sub-canopy, especially during the dry seasons, which could translate into higher cocoa pod yields.

Allanblackia parviflora A. Chev. is an indigenous tree species which is found in West African rainforest zones. It is an underutilized fruit tree species that has been targeted for improvement as part of efforts to domesticate high-value indigenous multi-purpose trees for fruit and seed production in Africa. Allanblackia has several benefits, such as providing shade, timber, and medicine; however, the production of edible oil from its seeds is the economically most important use. There is evidence that the Allanblackia seed oil, which is used for cooking, the production of margarine and the manufacturing of ointments and soap, is being developed as a new agri-business in Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Tanzania. Despite the nutritional and socio-economic importance of A. parviflora, it is still at the early stages of its domestication process. Even though several researchers have explored the biology of this species, there is very limited scientific information available on its morphological and genetic diversity and silvicultural management in West Africa. Therefore, this systematic review presents an up-to-date overview on the uses, seed chemical composition, and morphological and genetic diversity of this fruit tree species, and proposes a way forward for future research towards improvement and domestication.

Ghanaian farmers have been practicing farming since time immemorial and trees are a normal component of farmlands. However, the choice of particular tree species and their population on the farms is greatly influenced by the farmers’ preferences and therefore, the utility value placed on particular tree species. This study was conducted to determine the number of trees per unit area of farmland, the diversity of the tree species, and the factors that influence farmers’ decision to leave trees on their farms in three districts of the Upper East region of Ghana. It also seeks to determine any relationship between tree density and the yields of commonly cultivated crops in the study area. The area falls within the Guinea and Sudan savanna zones, characterized by a short unimodal rainfall regime (about 5 months) and a rather long dry season. Twelve communities (4 per district) were randomly selected and farmers were interviewed on their reasons for allowing trees on their farmlands as well as the yields of major crops cultivated. Ten farms in each community were also randomly selected and inventories of trees were conducted, where trees were identified, and enumerated. Farm sizes were also measured. Mean tree population densities on farms were 18.5, 18.4 and 25.9 trees per hectare in the Garu-Tempane, Bawku West and Kassena Nankana West districts respectively. A Shannon Weiner diversity index of 1.563, 1.195 and 1.551 were calculated for Garu-Tempane, Bawku West and Kassena Nankana West districts respectively. Forty-two (42) different tree species belonging to 23 families were encountered in Garu-Tempane district, 28 species from 18 families were encountered in the Bawku West district and 37 species belonging to 21 families in the Kassena Nankana West district. Azadirachta indica, Combretum molle, Diospyros mespiliformis were the commonest on all farms. Factors that influenced farmers’ decision to allow trees on their farms were shade (22%), fuelwood (18%), food (15%), medicine (13%), housing (13%), soil improvement (10%), erosion control (7%), fodder (1%) and others (1%). Crop yields were generally high in the Bawku West district and there was no significant relationship between tree population density and the yields of crops.