Recent climate change models predict that coffee production and the livelihood of millions of farmers will be hardly affected by climate change. Climate changes pronounced in increasing temperature and rainfall variability will reduce the bio-climatic suitable areas, growth and yield of coffee and will induce the occurrence of pests and diseases. Understanding the extent of the climate-driven impact on coffee production and farmers’ adaptation strategies is vital in sustaining coffee productivity. In the form of in-depth analysis, this review begins by contextualizing climate change and coffee production and gives insight into the impact of climate change on coffee suitability areas, growth, yield and the incidence of pests and diseases. It further examines the adaptation strategies pursued by farmers to reduce the impacts of climate change. Site-specific adaptation strategies implemented by farmers to minimize detrimental effects of climate change include (i) selecting appropriate shade tree species and their optimal management, (ii) farmers training, (iii) soil fertility maintenance and protection and (iv) pests and diseases management. Moreover, improving farmers’ access to weather, fair market and technology will enhance their adaptive capacity to climate change. Finally, designing adaptation policies and building the existing practices help the small farmers to pursue climate-resilient coffee production.

Recent studies suggest that smallholder farmers’ perceptions rather than exact meteorological data strongly influence how they adapt to the changing climate. Therefore, we explored the climate change (CC) perceptions and adaptation strategies of coffee farmers in dependence on the meteorological data (1983–2020) along an elevation gradient (1,600–2,000 masl) in the Sidama region, Ethiopia. In total, 351 coffee farmers were randomly selected for household interviews, complemented with key informants (KIs), focus group discussions (FGDs), and field observations. Severity Index (SI) was computed to measure farmers’ perception of CC, followed by a Mann–Kendall test to ascertain climate trends. Weighted Average Index (WAI) was also used to rank adaptation strategies. We detected an increasing temperature and annual rainfall trend. Nevertheless, while farmers agreed on rising temperatures, they perceived rainfall reduction, contradicting the meteorological data. The highest SI was recorded for the rising temperature, followed by the uncertainty of rainfall distribution, increasing number of hot days, late-onset, and reduced amount of rainfall. The SI results with KIs and FGDs confirmed that weather events seemed more variable than in the past two to three decades and affected coffee production. As the most important CC adaptation strategies, the respondents practise agroforestry, application of compost, terrace construction, modification of farming calendar, and crop diversification. Our results also revealed that gender, education, farming experience, family size, access to agricultural and farmer-to-farmer extensions, and credit services affected adopting adaptation strategies. This study confirms that farmers’ perception is more important in shaping the applied adaptation strategies.

Allanblackia parviflora A. Chev. is an indigenous tree species which is found in West African rainforest zones. It is an underutilized fruit tree species that has been targeted for improvement as part of efforts to domesticate high-value indigenous multi-purpose trees for fruit and seed production in Africa. Allanblackia has several benefits, such as providing shade, timber, and medicine; however, the production of edible oil from its seeds is the economically most important use. There is evidence that the Allanblackia seed oil, which is used for cooking, the production of margarine and the manufacturing of ointments and soap, is being developed as a new agri-business in Ghana, Nigeria, Cameroon, and Tanzania. Despite the nutritional and socio-economic importance of A. parviflora, it is still at the early stages of its domestication process. Even though several researchers have explored the biology of this species, there is very limited scientific information available on its morphological and genetic diversity and silvicultural management in West Africa. Therefore, this systematic review presents an up-to-date overview on the uses, seed chemical composition, and morphological and genetic diversity of this fruit tree species, and proposes a way forward for future research towards improvement and domestication.