This review presents a comprehensive and systematic study of the field of plant biostimulants and considers the fundamental and innovative principles underlying this technology. The elucidation of the biological basis of biostimulant function is a prerequisite for the development of science-based biostimulant industry and sound regulations governing these compounds. The task of defining the biological basis of biostimulants as a class of compounds, however, is made more complex by the diverse sources of biostimulants present in the market, which include bacteria, fungi, seaweeds, higher plants, animals and humate-containing raw materials, and the wide diversity of industrial processes utilized in their preparation. To distinguish biostimulants from the existing legislative product categories we propose the following definition of a biostimulant as ‘a formulated product of biological origin that improves plant productivity as a consequence of the novel or emergent properties of the complex of constituents, and not as a sole consequence of the presence of known essential plant nutrients, plant growth regulators, or plant protective compounds’. The definition provided here is important as it emphasizes the principle that biological function can be positively modulated through application of molecules, or mixtures of molecules, for which an explicit mode of action has not been defined. Given the difficulty in determining a ‘mode of action’ for a biostimulant, and recognizing the need for the market in biostimulants to attain legitimacy, we suggest that the focus of biostimulant research and validation should be upon proof of efficacy and safety and the determination of a broad mechanism of action, without a requirement for the determination of a specific mode of action. While there is a clear commercial imperative to rationalize biostimulants as a discrete class of products, there is also a compelling biological case for the science-based development of, and experimentation with biostimulants in the expectation that this may lead to the identification of novel biological molecules and phenomenon, pathways and processes, that would not have been discovered if the category of biostimulants did not exist, or was not considered legitimate.

Plants require at least 14 mineral elements for their nutrition. These include the macronutrients nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg) and sulphur (S) and the micronutrients chlorine (Cl), boron (B), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn), nickel (Ni) and molybdenum (Mo). These are generally obtained from the soil. Crop production is often limited by low phytoavailability of essential mineral elements and/or the presence of excessive concentrations of potentially toxic mineral elements, such as sodium (Na), Cl, B, Fe, Mn and aluminium (Al), in the soil solution. This article provides the context for a Special Issue of the Annals of Botany on ‘Plant Nutrition for Sustainable Development and Global Health’. It provides an introduction to plant mineral nutrition and explains how mineral elements are taken up by roots and distributed within plants. It introduces the concept of the ionome (the elemental composition of a subcellular structure, cell, tissue or organism), and observes that the activities of key transport proteins determine species-specific, tissue and cellular ionomes. It then describes how current research is addressing the problems of mineral toxicities in agricultural soils to provide food security and the optimization of fertilizer applications for economic and environmental sustainability. It concludes with a perspective on how agriculture can produce edible crops that contribute sufficient mineral elements for adequate animal and human nutrition.

The interest of biologists in boron (B) has largely been focused on its role in plants for which B was established as essential in 1923 (Warington, 1923^[296]). Evidence that B has a biological role in other organisms was first indicated by the establishment of essentiality of B for diatoms (Smyth and Dugger, 1981^[296]) and cyanobacteria (Bonilla et al., 1990^[296]; Garcia‐Gonzalez et al., 1991^[296]; Bonilla et al., 1997^[296]). Recently, B was shown to stimulate growth in yeast (Bennett et al., 1999^[296]) and to be essential for zebrafish (Danio rerio) (Eckhert and Rowe, 1999^[296]; Rowe and Eckhert, 1999^[296]) and possibly for trout (Oncorhynchus mykiss) (Eckhert, 1998^[296]; Rowe et al., 1998^[296]), frogs (Xenopus laevis) (Fort et al., 1998^[296]) and mouse (Lanoue et al., 2000^[296]). There is also preliminary evidence to suggest that B has at least a beneficial role in humans (Nielsen, 2000^[296]).While research into the role of B in plants has been ongoing for 80 years it has only been in the past 5 years that the first function of B in plants has been defined. Boron is now known to be essential for cell wall structure and function, likely through its role as a stabilizer of the cell wall pectic network and subsequent regulation of cell wall pore size. A role for B in plant cell walls, however, is inadequate to explain all of the effects of B deficiency seen in plants. The suggestion that B plays a broader role in biology is supported by the discovery that B is essential for animals where a cellulose‐rich cell wall is not present. Careful consideration of the physical and chemical properties of B in biological systems, and of the experimental data from both plants and animals suggests that B plays a critical role in membrane structure and hence function. Verification of B association with membranes would represent an important advance in modern biology.For several decades there has been uncertainty as to the mechanisms of B uptake and transport within plants. This uncertainty has been driven by a lack of adequate methodology to measure membrane fluxes of B at physiologically relevant concentrations. Recent experimentation provides the first direct measurement of membrane permeability of B and illustrates that passive B permeation contributes sufficient B at adequate levels of B supply, but would be inadequate at conditions of marginal B supply. The hypothesis that an active, carrier mediated process is involved in B uptake at low B supply is supported by research demonstrating that B uptake can be stimulated by B deprivation, that uptake rates follow a Michaelis‐Menton kinetics, and can be inhibited by application of metabolic inhibitors. Since the mechanisms of element uptake are generally conserved between species, an understanding of the processes of B uptake is relevant to studies in both plants and animals.The study of B in plant biology has progressed markedly in the last decade and we are clearly on the cusp of additional, significant discoveries. Research in this field will be greatly stimulated by the discovery that B is essential for animals, a discovery that will not only encourage the participation of a wider cadre of scientists but will refocus the efforts of plant biologists toward a determination of roles for B outside the plant cell wall. Determination of the function of B in biology and of the mechanisms of B uptake in biological systems, is essential to our understanding and management of B deficiency and toxicity in plants and animals in both agricultural and natural environments. Through an analysis of existing data and the development of new hypotheses, this review aims to provide a vision of the future of research into the biology of boron.

The application of agrochemical sprays to the aerial parts of crop plants is an important agricultural practice world-wide. While variable effectiveness is often seen in response to foliar treatments, there is abundant evidence showing the beneficial effect of foliar fertilizers in terms of improving the metabolism, quality, and yields of crops. This mini-review is focused on the major bottlenecks associated with the uptake and translocation of foliar-applied nutrient solutions. A better understanding of the complex scenario surrounding the ultimate delivery of foliar-applied nutrients to sink cells and organs is essential for improving the effectiveness and performance of foliar fertilizers.

Temperate fruit and nut trees require adequate winter chill to produce economically viable yields. Global warming has the potential to reduce available winter chill and greatly impact crop yields. We estimated winter chill for two past (1975 and 2000) and 18 future scenarios (mid and end 21st century; 3 Global Climate Models [GCMs]; 3 greenhouse gas emissions [GHG] scenarios). For 4,293 weather stations around the world and GCM projections, Safe Winter Chill (SWC), the amount of winter chill that is exceeded in 90% of all years, was estimated for all scenarios using the “Dynamic Model” and interpolated globally. We found that SWC ranged between 0 and about 170 Chill Portions (CP) for all climate scenarios, but that the global distribution varied across scenarios. Warm regions are likely to experience severe reductions in available winter chill, potentially threatening production there. In contrast, SWC in most temperate growing regions is likely to remain relatively unchanged, and cold regions may even see an increase in SWC. Climate change impacts on SWC differed quantitatively among GCMs and GHG scenarios, with the highest GHG leading to losses up to 40 CP in warm regions, compared to 20 CP for the lowest GHG. The extent of projected changes in winter chill in many major growing regions of fruits and nuts indicates that growers of these commodities will likely experience problems in the future. Mitigation of climate change through reductions in greenhouse gas emissions can help reduce the impacts, however, adaption to changes will have to occur. To better prepare for likely impacts of climate change, efforts should be undertaken to breed tree cultivars for lower chilling requirements, to develop tools to cope with insufficient winter chill, and to better understand the temperature responses of tree crops.