Aflatoxin M1 (AFM1) is a mycotoxin from Aspergillus flavus and A. parasiticus, classified as carcinogenic and hepatotoxic. The objective of the present investigation was to determine its presence in raw milk from north-central Ecuador, constituted by the provinces of Pichincha, Manabí, and Santo Domingo de los Tsáchilas. These areas represent approximately 30% of Ecuadorian milk production. By the end of the investigation, a total of 209 raw milk samples were collected, obtained both during the dry (June and August) and rainy seasons (April and November) of 2019. AFM1 concentrations were measured with lateral flow immunochromatographic assays, and 100% of the samples were positive for this mycotoxin, presenting a mean value of 0.0774 μg/kg with a range of 0.023 to 0.751 μg/kg. These AFM1 levels exceeded the European Union regulatory limit of 0.05 μg/kg in 59.3% (124/209) of samples, while only 1.9% (4/209) exceeded the Ecuadorian legal limit of 0.5 μg/kg. By using non-parametric tests, significant differences were determined (p ≤ 0.05) between the provinces for months of study, climatic season (being higher in the dry season), and climatic region (greater in the coast region). On the other hand, there were no significant differences (p ≥ 0.05) between the types of producers or between production systems. Therefore, AFM1 contamination in raw milk does not present a serious public health problem in Ecuador, but a monitoring and surveillance program for this mycotoxin in milk should be developed to prevent consumer health problems.

Livestock in the Peruvian Amazon region is mostly produced in areas considered degraded pastureland and associated with deforestation. Silvopastoral systems (SPS) are an alternative for sustainable livestock production. This article aims to provide information about progress in development of SPS in the Peruvian Amazon region during the last 2 decades and opportunities to develop it further at the national level. The geographical characteristics and climatic conditions of the Peruvian Amazon are described, followed by a review of the experiences with SPS in the 5 most relevant departments of the region. Constraints for implementation of SPS practices in the country and the current initiatives at regional and national level to promote and develop more sustainable livestock production in the region are presented. There is a large variation in SPS practiced along the different departments of the Amazon region. It is imperative that the Peruvian Government continues promoting SPS for recovering degraded lands through generating enabling conditions for farmers to adopt and/or scale up SPS.