Electron hydrodynamics in graphene: Electrons can move through graphene in a manner reminiscent of fluids, if the conditions are right. Two groups studied the nature of this hydrodynamic flow in different regimes (see the Perspective by Lucas). Gallagher et al. measured optical conductivity using a waveguide-based setup, revealing signatures of quantum criticality near the charge neutrality point. Berdyugin et al. focused on electron transport in the presence of a magnetic field and measured a counterintuitive contribution to the Hall response that stems from hydrodynamic flow. Science , this issue p. 158 , p. 162 ; see also p. 125

We have used terahertz time-domain spectroscopy to investigate the complex optical constants and birefringence of a widely used liquid crystal mixture E7 in both nematic and isotropic phases $\left(26°\text{C}–70°\text{C}\right)$. The extinction coefficient of E7 at room temperature is less than 0.035 and without sharp absorption features in the frequency range of 0.2–2.0 THz. The extraordinary $\left(n_e\right)$ and ordinary $\left(n_o\right)$ indices of refraction at $26°\text{C}$ are 1.690–1.704 and 1.557–1.581, respectively, giving rise to a birefringence of 0.130–0.148 in this frequency range. The temperature-dependent $\left(26°\text{C}–70°\text{C}\right)$ order parameter extracted from the birefringence data agrees with that in the visible region quite well. Further, the temperature gradients of the terahertz optical constants of E7 are also determined. The optical constants of E7 in the terahertz or sub-millimeter wave range are found to deviate significantly from values predicated by the usual extended Cauchy equations used in the visible and near-infrared.

Indium–tin–oxide nanowhiskers were employed as transparent electrodes in a liquid-crystal terahertz phase shifter. Transmittance of the device was as high as $\sim 75\%$. Phase shift exceeding $\pi /2$ at 1.0 THz is achieved in a $\sim 500\mathrm{\mu m}$-thick cell. The driving voltage required for the device operating as a quarter-wave plate was as low as 17.68 V (rms), an improvement of nearly an order of magnitude over previous work.

Indium-tin-oxide (ITO) nanorods (NRs) and nanowhiskers (NWhs) were fabricated by an electron-beam glancing-angle deposition (GLAD) system. These nanomaterials are of interests as transparent conducting electrodes in various devices. Two terahertz (THz) time-domain spectrometers (TDS) with combined spectral coverage from 0.15 to 9.00 THz were used. These allow accurate determination of the optical and electrical properties of such ITO nanomaterials in the frequency range from 0.20 to 4.00 THz. Together with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopic (FTIR) measurements, we found that the THz and far-infrared transmittance of these nanomaterials can be as high as 70% up to 15 THz, as opposed to about 9% for sputtered ITO thin films. The complex conductivities of ITO NRs, NWhs as well films are well fitted by the Drude-Smith model. Taking into account that the volume filling factors of both type of nanomaterials are nearly same, mobilities, and DC conductivities of ITO NWhs are higher than those of NRs due to less severe carrier localization effects in the former. On the other hand, mobilities of sputtered ITO thin films are poorer than ITO nanomaterials because of larger concentration of dopant ions in films, which causes stronger carrier scattering. We note further that consideration of the extreme values of Re{σ} and Im{σ} as well the inflection points, which are functions of the carrier scattering time (τ) and the expectation value of cosine of the scattering angle (γ), provide additional criteria for accessing the accuracy of the extraction of electrical parameters of non-Drude-like materials using THz-TDS. Our studies so far indicate ITO NWhs with heights of ~1000 nm show outstanding transmittance and good electrical characteristics for applications such as transparent conducting electrodes of THz Devices.

Quarter-wave operation or a phase shift of more than π/2, which is approximately ten times greater than that reported in previous works using liquid crystals (LCs) and graphene electrodes, was demonstrated. The device is transparent to the terahertz (THz) wave, and the driving voltage required was as low as approximately 2.2 V (rms), which is also unprecedented. Experimental results supported a theoretical formalism adapted for LC cells with THz wavelength-scale thickness. The scattering rate, DC mobility, and carrier mean free path of bilayer graphene were also determined using THz spectroscopic techniques; the parameters were inferior to those of monolayer graphene. This observation can be attributed to the higher density of charged impurities in the bilayer graphene. The device performances of LC phase shifters using monolayer and bilayer graphene as electrodes were essentially identical.

A comparative study of indium-tin-oxide (ITO) nanowhiskers (NWhs) and thin films as transparent conductors in the terahertz frequency range are conducted. We employ both transmission-type and reflection-type terahertz time-domain spectroscopies (THz-TDTS and THz-TDRS) to explore the far-infrared optical properties of these samples. Their electrical properties, such as plasma frequencies and carrier scattering times, are analyzed and found to be fitted well by the Drude-Smith model over 0.1-1.4 THz. Further, structural and crystalline properties of samples are examined by scanning electron microscopy and X-ray diffraction, respectively. Non-Drude behavior of complex conductivities in ITO NWhs is attributed to carrier scattering from grain boundaries and impurity ions. In ITO thin films, however, the observed non-Drude behavior is ascribed to scattering by impurity ions only. Considering NWhs and thin films with the same height, mobility of the former is ~ 125 cm ² V ^-1 s ^-1 , much larger than those of the ITO thin films, ~ 27 cm ² V ^-1 s ^-1 . This is attributed to the longer carrier scattering time of the NWhs. The dc conductivities ( ~ 250 Ω ^-1 cm ^-1 ) or real conductivities in the THz frequency region of ITO NWhs is, however, lower than those of the ITO thin films ( ~ 800 Ω ^-1 cm ^-1 ) but adequate for use as electrodes. Partly, this is a reflection of the much higher plasma frequencies of thin films. Significantly, the transmittance of ITO NWhs ( ≅ 60%-70%) is much higher ( ≅ 13 times) than those of ITO thin films in the THz frequency range. The underneath basic physics is that the THz radiation can easily propagate through the air-space among NWhs. The superb transmittance and adequate electrical properties of ITO NWhs suggest their potential applications as transparent conducting electrodes in THz devices.