It has been more than 20 years since the first in man transcatheter aortic valve intervention (TAVI), and during this period we have witnessed an impressive evolution of this technique, with an extension of its use from non-operable patients to high-, intermediate- and even low-risk patients with aortic stenosis, and with a decrease in the incidence of complications. In this review, we discuss the evaluation of patients before TAVI, the procedure and the changes it has seen over time, and we present the current main complications and challenges of TAVI.

This study aimed to evaluate the modification of non-invasive myocardial work (MW) indices related to aortic stenosis (AS) stages of cardiac damage and their prognostic value. The echocardiographic and outcome data of 170 patients, with asymptomatic moderate-to-severe AS and left ventricular ejection fraction (LVEF) ≥ 50%, and 50 age- and sex-comparable healthy controls were analysed. Primary endpoints were the occurrence of all-cause and cardiovascular death. Increased values of the global work index (GWI), global constructive work (GCW), and global wasted work (GWW) were observed in AS patients compared to controls (GWI: 2528 ± 521 vs. 2005 ± 302 mmHg%, GCW: 2948 ± 598 vs. 2360 ± 353 mmHg%, p < 0.001; GWW: 139 ± 90 vs. 90 ± 49 mmHg%, p = 0.005), with no changes in the global work efficiency. When patients were stratified according to the stages of cardiac damage, the GWI showed lower values in Stage 3–4 as compared to Stage 0 and Stage 2 (p = 0.024). During a mean follow-up of 30 months, 27 patients died. In multivariable Cox-regression analysis, adjusted for confounders, GWI (HR: 0.998, CI: 0.997–1.000; p = 0.034) and GCW (HR:0.998, CI: 0.997–0.999; p = 0.003) were significantly associated with excess mortality. When used as categorical variables, a GWI ≤ 1951 mmHg% and a GCW ≤ 2475 mmHg% accurately predicted all-cause and cardiovascular death at 4-year follow-up. In conclusion, in asymptomatic patients with moderate-to-severe AS, reduced values of GWI and GCW are associated with increased mortality. Therefore, the evaluation of MW indices may allow for a better identification of asymptomatic patients with moderate to severe AS and preserved LVEF whom are at increased risk of worse prognosis during follow-up.

Percutaneous patent foramen ovale (PFO) closure by traditional, double disc occluder devices was shown to be safe for patients with PFO, and more effective than prolonged medical therapy in preventing recurrent thromboembolic events. The novel suture-mediated “deviceless” PFO closure system overcomes most of the risks and limitations associated with the traditional PFO occluders, appearing to be feasible in most interatrial septum anatomies, even if data about its long-term effectiveness and safety are still lacking. The aim of the present review was to provide to the reader the state of the art about the traditional and newer techniques of PFO closure, focusing both on the procedural aspects and on the pivotal role of transesophageal echocardiography (TEE) in patient’s selection, peri-procedural guidance, and post-interventional follow-up.

Recently, a staging system using 4 grades has been proposed to quantify the extent of cardiac damage associated with aortic stenosis (AS), namely AS-related cardiac damage staging (ASCDS). ASCDS is independently associated with all-cause mortality and important clinical outcomes. To evaluate whether it might be associated with the occurrence of conduction system disorders after TAVI, a total of 119 symptomatic patients with severe AS who underwent a TAVI were categorized according to ASCDS: group 1 (13.5%): no or LV damage; group 2 (58.8%): left atrial/mitral valve damage, atrial fibrillation (AF); group 3 (27.7%): low-flow state, pulmonary vasculature/tricuspid valve/RV damage. After TAVI, 34% of patients exhibited LBBB and 10% high-degree atrioventricular block (HD-AVB). No patient in group 1 developed HD-AVB whereas new LBBB was frequent in groups 2 and 3. Twenty-one patients presented with paroxysmal AF with a higher rate for each group increment (group 1: n = 0, 0%; group 2: n = 11, 15.7%; group 3: n = 10, 30.3%) (p = 0.012). Patients in group 3 had the higher rate of permanent pacemaker implantation (PPMI) (group 1: n = 1, 6.3%; group 2: n = 7, 10%; group 3: n = 9, 27.3%) (p = 0.012). In conclusion, ASCDS might help identify patients at higher risk of conduction disorders and PPMI requirement after TAVI.

To evaluate whether the extent of cardiac damage in severe aortic stenosis (AS) might be associated with the occurrence of conduction system disorders after TAVI. A total of 153 symptomatic patients with severe AS who had a TAVI were categorized before the procedure according to the extent of cardiac damage: stage 1 (13.5%): no or LV damage; stage 2 (58.8%): left atrial/mitral valve damage, atrial fibrillation (AF); stage 3 (27.7%): low-flow state, pulmonary vasculature/tricuspid valve/RV damage. After TAVI, 34% of patients exhibited LBBB and 10% high-degree atrioventricular block (HD-AVB). No patient in group 1 developed HD-AVD whereas new LBBB was frequent in groups 2 and 3. Twenty-one patients presented with resolutive paroxysmal AF with a higher rate for each group increment (group 1: n=0, 0%; group 2: n=11,15.7%; group 3: n=10, 30.3%) (p = 0.012). Patients in group 3 had the higher rate of permanent pacemaker implantation (PPMI) (group 1: n=1, 6.3%; group 2: n=7,10%; group 3: n=9, 27.3%) (p=0.012). No patient in group 1 died during the hospital stay. In conclusion, cardiac damage staging of AS might help identify patients at higher risk of conduction disorders and PPMI requirement after TAVI.