While cities have become gradually more vertical and complex over the past century, our methods for conceptualising their characteristics and measuring their forms and functions are still largely based in a horizontal mindset. Recent work has sought to shift urban discourse towards understanding cities according to their volumetric properties. Moving the debate further, this paper approaches volumetric urbanism from a morphological perspective, setting out a research agenda that operationalises the concept as a means of better capturing the morphological characteristics of cities as volumetric entities. First, we deconstruct volumetric urbanism into the five basic building blocks that define volumetric morphologies: density, functional mix, compaction and compression, complex networks and interaction intensity. Next, we propose two methods for capturing the urban volumetrics of cities based on spatial and network interaction and apply them to a hypothetical case and a preliminary study of Hong Kong. We conclude by arguing that a volumetric approach is required to capture the complex form of compressed, multi-layered and highly connected cities. In response, urban morphological and planning discourses must move away from the horizontal analytical mindset, embrace a multi-layered three-dimensional view of cities and place greater emphasis on spatial configurations and network relations by measuring interaction.

Numerous studies have shown that the emotional wellbeing of urban populations is influenced by various aspects of urban development, such as social factors and the presence of walkable areas and green spaces. However, there is a lack of research that closely integrates urban design and cognition, particularly in the context of vertical and volumetric urbanism. This disconnect between design and science disciplines is evident when reviewing the limited research on emotional and spatial cognition in this specific urban context. This paper seeks to address that disconnect by proposing a comprehensive framework for the cognitive measurement and modelling of the built environment. This will involve exploring and measuring neural mechanisms, employing electroencephalogram (EEG) equipment to measure user responses in vertical and volumetric public spaces. The aim is to create a foundation for further studies in this field that is consistent and rigorous and can facilitate collaboration with cognitive neuroscientists by establishing a shared conceptual basis. The goal of this research is to develop a human-centric approach for urban design that is scientific and measurable, producing a set of urban design guidelines that incorporate cognitive measurement and modelling, with the broader intention to prioritize human needs and wellbeing within urban environments to make them more liveable.

Between 1971 and 2020, ‘Natural’ spaces in urban areas in Hong Kong, which include green areas, planting trees, and ornamental landscape features, increased in quantity at an average annual rate of 0.26% within the urban area of Hong Kong (World Data 2020). These provide residents with the opportunity to connect with and experience nature (Dunn et al., 2006; Palliwoda et al., 2017). The health benefits of this are increasingly being recognised (Soga and Gaston 2016; Mell 2017), with evidence of an enhancement in both the physical and mental health of people living near parks and natural spaces (Lovell et al., 2014). Although a small number of countries have created policies and strategies to increase opportunities for people to visit natural spaces, these tend to be at a macro, national level rather than considering in detail biophilic design, as in design for the love and appreciation of nature, at a local and neighbourhood level (Mell 2017; Ten Brink et al., 2016). This is a vital component, when considered in the context of the fundamental disconnection to nature that is occurring for so many who join the continuing migration pattern from the rural to the urban (Soga and Gaston 2016). Within this context, this paper uses the small urban pocket parks in Hong Kong as a testing ground, assessed using predictive Artificial Intelligence (AI) as a methodology to to assess and understand the extent to which the character of these spaces may influence a better connection to nature within urban areas.

Within Hong Kong’s neoliberal landscape, what insights can an interrogation of its domestic interior deliver in terms of spatial and tactical adaptability in the context of volumetrically compressed living? As an urban necessity, dwelling has globally become a malleable urban resource, part and parcel of speculative development far beyond the control of the individual (Levin and Wright 1997 Levin, E. J. , and R. E. Wright. 1997. “Speculation in the Housing Market?” SAGE Journal, Urban Studies 34 (9): 1419–1437. (Accessed 13 May 2016). doi: 10.1080/0042098975493. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] ; UNECE 2016 UNECE 2016. “The Geneva UN Charter on Sustainable Housing.” (Accessed 13 May 2016). [Google Scholar] ). Demonstrative of planning and social policy, housing standards have become socio-spatial registers (Marshall 1950 Marshall, T. H. 1950. Citizenship and Social Class and Other Essays. London: Cambridge University Press. [Google Scholar] ), that at the larger scale essentially expose misread criteria that affect social mobility and the “well-being” of all citizens (Morris 1961 Morris, P. , H. Alford, et al. 1961. Ministry of Housing and Local Government: Homes for Today & Tomorrow. London: Her Majesty’s Stationery Office. [Google Scholar] ). However, beyond the structural issues lies a “lived” reality. The need for equal housing (Yung and Lee 2014 Yung, B. , and F. Lee. P. 2014. “‘Equal Right to Housing’ in Hong Kong Housing Policy: perspectives from Disadvantaged Groups.” Journal of Housing and the Built Environment 29 (4): 563. doi: 10.1007/s10901-013-9365-2. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] ), and the rising criticism of public housing’s punitive point system (Yau 2012 Yau, Y. 2012. “Social Impacts of the Marking Scheme in Public Housing in Hong Kong.” Social Indicators Research 107 (2): 281–303. doi: 10.1007/s11205-011-9837-2. [Crossref], [Web of Science ®] , [Google Scholar] ), has forced the “practice” of dwelling to become a “tactical” environment. In view of Hong Kong’s spatial recoil, this paper commences from a position that sees compressed interiors as a mirror for social needs. First, the investigation of interiors questions how space is tactically mechanized – how and by what means – against compressed living that maximizes moments of “micro-resistance.” Second, in an ethnographic sense, it posits the square-foot-society concept, that triangulates the conditions of quotidian everydayness with the spatial technical affordances that become specific to groups, peoples, and cultures with their customs and habits. As a conclusion the paper harnesses the “tactical” to formulate alternatives to challenge planning attitudes that view compression as a natural consequence of sustainability and at the larger scale of Hong Kong’s approach to Urbanization.

Raw bamboo, a biomass building material with ecological degradability and rapid growth, is crucial for promoting a circular economy and sustainable environments. However, its non-standard nature limits standardized design and mass production. To overcome this, our study introduces a modular bamboo design workflow utilizing digital design technology to address geometric variability. The workflow incorporates 3D scanning to convert raw bamboo forms into precise geometric data, analyze their geometric parameters and connection methods for modular design, and apply discrete–topological shape-finding and aggregation for iterative optimization in batch production. We explore how XR assists in visualizing bamboo furniture designs, the benefits of 3D scanning, discrete design principles, and strategies for material integration. Our methodology includes material analysis, form finding, optimization, and a parametric workflow to enhance adaptability and innovation. The process covers 3D scanning raw bamboo, designing discrete units and connection rules, and aggregating units via topological optimization. This study highlights how modern digital technologies and innovative methodologies can enhance bamboo furniture design. These approaches promote more effective and diverse solutions while addressing the inherent limitations of the material.