With a people-oriented principle, contemporary architectural design regards the users’ spiritual and emotional satisfaction as fundamental needs. However, it was tough for designers to collect and quantify the users’ accurate perception of a design scheme in the past. This research aims to propose a method incorporating virtual reality (VR) and sensors, and wearable technology to pre-evaluate the impact of spatial schemes on user experience. Specifically, it collected users’ physiological signals to detect emotions and eye-tracking data to understand visual attention during their roaming in a VR environment. An empirical design scheme for the International School of Design’s outdoor spaces in Harbin Institute of Technology was adopted as a study case. For this purpose, multiple groups of contrast schemes were established in VR for users to experience. Participants’ physiological signals were collected and analyzed using the paired-samples T-test method. Subjective questionnaire data were also collected to assist in the verification of objective physiological data. The results showed that designers could evaluate the experience of the designs by comparing user reactions through analysis of physiological signals. Simultaneously, this evaluation method explores a feasible way for designers to promote architecture designs to be more humanized and scientific. GRAPHICAL ABSTRACT

Purpose: Ancient Chinese architecture is famous for its wooden frame structure and unique position in world architecture history. As numerous types of components and complex combinations exist, the overall structural system and how they are interlocked have always been crucial but challenging parts of the study. Students find it hard to understand and remember the concepts using traditional 2D paper media, making such knowledge unattractive to pass on to the new generation. To overcome the challenges, this research aims to examine the effect of combining Virtual Reality (VR) with digital interaction games in learning structural characteristics (dougong) of ancient Chinese architecture. Design/methodology/approach: This research develops an interactive cognitive system in the VR environment based on constructivist theory to improve the learning approach of ancient Chinese architecture. Applying an experimental procedure, the feedback of an experimental group using the VR cognition system and a control group using traditional learning 2D media are collected to examine the differences in learning effectiveness and user experience. Findings: This study develops an interactive cognitive system to aid in learning the structural system of ancient Chinese architecture. The results indicate that integrating VR and interactive learning games can increase students' positive attitudes and learning effectiveness towards ancient Chinese architecture. Originality/value: This study integrates VR technology and interactive games to improve the learning approach. It examines the effect of applying the concept of human–computer interaction in learning ancient Chinese buildings. The concept of designing the interactive cognitive system is expected to guide students gradually to be the main body of learning and stimulate their learning enthusiasm and motivation.

The immersive experience and diverse interaction modes provided by virtual digital technology match the spatial sensitivity and practical ability required in the field of architectural teaching, and its technological advantages can significantly enhance teaching outcomes. However, in the field of architecture teaching, there has been a lack of discussion on the suitability of different virtual technologies and teaching scenarios for historical buildings. Therefore, this study constructed a comprehensive adaptive evaluation system for virtual technology and selected 360-degree panoramic technology (360-degree PT), Immersive Virtual Reality (IVR) technology, and Desktop Virtual Reality (DVR) technology as representatives for empirical study. The research method used in this experiment is a questionnaire survey, involving a total of 60 students majoring in architecture and planning, with a certain foundation in historical architecture knowledge. Multiple statistical methods are employed to analyze the data. The experimental data indicates that IVR technology performs the best in terms of learning outcomes, learning autonomy, and sense of presence, making it suitable for immersive and interactive learning needs. 360-degree PT demonstrates the best perception of architectural features, catering to the demand for visual effects. DVR technology exhibits the highest learning efficiency, meeting the need for simplicity, efficiency, and widespread application. On the other hand, augmented reality (AR) technology and mixed reality (MR) technology have lower adaptability and do not meet the learning requirements for immersive spatial experiences. This study is expected to provide a new technical pathway for teaching historical buildings and serve as a systematic reference for selecting specific technologies.

Existing methods for generating 2D plans based on intelligent systems usually require human-defined rules, and their operations are complex. GANs can solve these problems through independent research and learning. However, they only have generative design research based on a single constraint condition, and whether they can generate a qualified design scheme under many constraints is still unclear. Therefore, this paper develops the M-StruGAN generative model based on the structural design framework of a GAN. Its application research is extended to the 2D-plan layout generation of homestay based on the constraints of hybrid structures, and the feasibility of the method is comprehensively verified through three aspects: image synthesis quality assessment, scheme rationality assessment, and scheme design quality assessment. Experimental results show that the quality of the drawings generated by M-StruGAN is qualified, designers have a high degree of acceptance of the design results of M-StruGAN, and M-StruGAN completed the learning of the critical points of the 2D layout. Finally, through the human–computer interaction application of M-StruGAN, it can be found that compared with traditional design methods, M-StruGAN based on pix2pixHD has high-definition image quality, higher design efficiency, lower design cost, and more stable design quality.

Raw bamboo, a biomass building material with ecological degradability and rapid growth, is crucial for promoting a circular economy and sustainable environments. However, its non-standard nature limits standardized design and mass production. To overcome this, our study introduces a modular bamboo design workflow utilizing digital design technology to address geometric variability. The workflow incorporates 3D scanning to convert raw bamboo forms into precise geometric data, analyze their geometric parameters and connection methods for modular design, and apply discrete–topological shape-finding and aggregation for iterative optimization in batch production. We explore how XR assists in visualizing bamboo furniture designs, the benefits of 3D scanning, discrete design principles, and strategies for material integration. Our methodology includes material analysis, form finding, optimization, and a parametric workflow to enhance adaptability and innovation. The process covers 3D scanning raw bamboo, designing discrete units and connection rules, and aggregating units via topological optimization. This study highlights how modern digital technologies and innovative methodologies can enhance bamboo furniture design. These approaches promote more effective and diverse solutions while addressing the inherent limitations of the material.