The concept of social–ecological knowledge diversity (SEKD) provides a novel way of examining coupled human–environment interactions—it acknowledges differences in knowledge, values, and beliefs of stakeholder groups within social–ecological systems (SES). Thus, understanding and measuring SEKD is an essential component of sustainable management with implications for conflict resolution, collective action and policymaking. However, methods to efficiently define and model knowledge diversity are still underdeveloped. Using a semiquantitative cognitive mapping approach, we collected and analyzed stakeholder‐specific knowledge and perceptions of the Western Baltic cod fishery to model SEKD. Results demonstrate substantial variation in perceptions across different individuals and social groups. SEKD was evident in (a) distinctive meanings attached to social factors relative to ecological factors, (b) causal relationships underlying the understanding of SES dynamics, and (c) social impacts of ecological changes on ecosystems (and vice versa). By identifying and representing knowledge‐specific disparities in SES frameworks, our model explicitly improves the understanding of human–environment interactions with implications that could help reduce conflicts and legitimize management plans.

Fish represent a politically regulated, scientifically researched, industrially processed, commercially marketed and socially contested living marine resource. Related to this, the incorporation of resource users and stakeholders into fisheries management is particularly important. Such involvement has recently improved in terms of frequency, but institutional frameworks often result in a lack of recognition and integration of the diverse ‘knowledges’ of stakeholders involved. Against this background, we aim to uncover the potentials of additional knowledge types for management purposes, paving the way toward a more collaborative management. We first conducted qualitative expert interviews with different stakeholder groups (e.g., commercial fisheries, eNGO and administration) to map various ‘knowledges’ about cod (Gadus morhua), a major resource species in the Western Baltic Sea to reveal the various experiences and epistemologies revolving around it. The second analytical step consisted of examining how these ‘knowledges’ structure, inform and often enter into conflict with perspectives on and assessments of fisheries management. Potentials were identified regarding enhanced stakeholder engagement in management processes that provide food for thought to seek change in sustainable management of fish stocks in the future. Our study is a pointer to the need to transform fisheries management in a more social and participatory way. We argue that sustainable natural resource management cannot be designed solely by integrating more ‘knowledges’ (knowledge sharing) but requires the creation of social contexts and institutions with stakeholder empowerment at the local level (power sharing) to sustainably manage natural resources such as commercially importance fish stocks.

The ocean is under increasing pressure from various human activities, including overfishing, pollution, and climate change. In response to these challenges, marine protected areas (MPAs) have emerged as important and widely applied tools for conserving and restoring marine ecosystems. Considering the complexity of identifying appropriate management measures and the resulting dynamics of their implementation, the integration of various knowledge types is of crucial importance. Germany has evolved as a leading advocate for marine conservation, playing an influential role in global conservation efforts. This context provides an interesting opportunity for examining the social and political dynamics of MPA implementation. In this study, we investigate the role of participatory approaches to knowledge integration using the case of two MPAs located in the German exclusive economic zone of the Baltic Sea. To this end, we conducted and analyzed 13 interviews with stakeholders from fisheries, environmental protection, public administration, and science. This approach was complemented by the review of documents leading to the adoption of the management plans. Our research addresses two key questions: (a) How much and what kind of knowledge is included in the management plan of the two German Baltic Sea MPAs and (b) how does this institutional framework promote or hinder the integration of diverse knowledge types? Our findings highlight the obstacles (e.g., power imbalances between different participation levels) of participatory governance levels in the two German MPAs. Thus, this study provides valuable insights for enhancing the effectiveness of participatory governance in German MPAs, thereby advancing marine conservation efforts.

Real-world laboratories (RwLs) have emerged as a scientifically grounded, sustainability-oriented, transdisciplinary approach to support transformative change through the co-production of knowledge via engagement and experimentation. While originally rooted in urban settings, real-world laboratories have increasingly been developed in rural and marine areas. Urban, rural, and marine areas have unique contextual characteristics that remain insufficiently addressed in both research and practice. This paper offers a first comparative view on real-world laboratories in urban, rural, and marine settings by using four different epistemological and ontological perspectives in spatial science: bio-physical, social-constructivist, geographic, and social-materialistic. We highlight key differences and investigate the implications of identified differences for transformative governance.