As the incidence of ischemia reperfusion (I‐R) injury has substantially increased, there is a pressing need to develop effective strategies to treat this global health issue. I‐R injury can affect all organs and is associated with high morbidity and mortality rates. Pathological settings such as myocardial infarction, stroke, hemorrhagic shock, and solid organ transplantation are particularly prone to cause I‐R injury. Ischemia (hypoxia) and/or reperfusion (re‐oxygenation) induce various forms of cellular and structural damage. A major cause of damage is local inflammatory responses, which may spread to produce more advanced systemic inflammation. Management of I‐R injury relies primarily on supportive measures, as specific treatment strategies are lacking. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell‐secreted nano‐scale structures containing various biomolecules involved in cell communication and multiple physiological processes. EVs derived from certain cell types have been shown to exhibit anti‐inflammatory, anti‐oxidant, and angiogenic properties. This review provides an overview of EV‐based therapeutics for I‐R injury in kidneys, liver, heart, lungs, and brain. Additionally, the mechanisms by which EVs protect against I‐R injury are discussed. Promising preclinical findings highlight the potential clinical use of EVs for I‐R injury.

Mycotic thoracic aortic aneurysm (MTAA) is an aneurysm of the aorta caused by infection of the vessel tissue through microbial inoculation of the diseased aortic endothelium. It is most commonly caused by bacteria. Rarely, it can be caused by fungi. However, viral aortic aneurysm has never been reported. Depending on the area and time period investigated, the infections organism discovered may vary significantly. Little is known about the natural history of MTAA due to its rarity. It is not known if they follow the same pattern as other TAAs. However, it is unclear whether MTAA follows a similar clinical course. The combination of clinical presentation, laboratory results, and radiographic results are used to make the diagnosis of MTAA. Treatment of MTAA is complex since patients frequently present at a late stage, frequently with fulminant sepsis, as well as concomitant complications such as aneurysm rupture. While medical treatment, including antibiotics, is recommended, surgery is still the mainstay of management. Surgery to treat MTAA is complicated and carries a high risk of morbidity and mortality and includes both open repairs and endovascular ones. In this review, we explore the etiology, pathogenesis, clinical presentations, diagnostic modalities as well as treatment management available for MTAA.

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are cell-released nanoparticles that transfer biomolecular content between cells. Among EV-associated biomolecules, microRNAs (miRNAs/miRs) represent one of the most important modulators of signaling pathways in recipient cells. Previous studies have shown that EVs from adipose-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (MSCs) and adipose tissue modulate inflammatory pathways in macrophages. In this study, the effects of miRNAs that are abundant in adipose tissue EVs and other biogenic nanoparticles (BiNPs) were assessed in terms of altering Toll-like receptor 4 (TLR4)-induced cytokines. TLR-4 signaling in macrophages is often triggered by pathogen or damage-induced inflammation and is associated with several diseases. This study demonstrates that miR-451a, which is abundant in adipose tissue BiNPs, suppresses pro-inflammatory cytokines and increases anti-inflammatory cytokines associated with the TLR4 pathway. Therefore, miR-451a may be partially responsible for immunomodulatory effects of adipose tissue-derived BiNPs.