Italy was one of the most impacted countries by the COVID-19 crisis, with detrimental effects on the world of sports. In this exploratory study, we examined Italian athletes’ perceived stress and functional/dysfunctional psychobiosocial states during the COVID-19 crisis, comparing current assessment scores with data collected prior to the pandemic. Differences by gender, sport (i.e., individual vs team sport), and competitive level (elite/expert vs novice athletes) were also examined. The perceived stress scale and the psychobiosocial states scale were administered to 1132 competitive athletes about one month after the beginning of Italian lockdown. The comparison between the data collected during COVID-19 with the data collected before the pandemic outbreak revealed highly significant differences with medium to large effects sizes. Findings suggest that the COVID-19 crisis increased athletes’ perceived stress and dysfunctional psychobiosocial states, while decreased functional psychobiosocial states. Analysis of variance revealed significant differences by gender on perceived stress and both types of psychobiosocial states, as well as by competitive level on perceived stress and functional psychobiosocial states. Specifically, women reported higher perceived stress and dysfunctional psychobiosocial states scores than men, and lower functional psychobiosocial states scores. Elite/expert athletes reported lower perceived stress and higher functional psychobiosocial states scores than novice athletes. From a practical point of view, training regimens and healthy behaviours during pandemic crises should be introduced as standard habits for health and well-being. The application of specific well-being protocols for women and novice athletes should be encouraged.

Background.The main goal of the present study was to explore theta and alpha event-related desynchronization/synchronization (ERD/ERS) activity during shooting performance. We adopted the idiosyncratic framework of the multi-action plan (MAP) model to investigate different processing modes underpinning four types of performance. In particular, we were interested in examining the neural activity associated with optimal-automated (Type 1) and optimal-controlled (Type 2) performances.Methods.Ten elite shooters (6 male and 4 female) with extensive international experience participated in the study. ERD/ERS analysis was used to investigate cortical dynamics during performance. A 4 × 3 (performance types × time) repeated measures analysis of variance was performed to test the differences among the four types of performance during the three seconds preceding the shots for theta, low alpha, and high alpha frequency bands. The dependent variables were the ERD/ERS percentages in each frequency band (i.e., theta, low alpha, high alpha) for each electrode site across the scalp. This analysis was conducted on 120 shots for each participant in three different frequency bands and the individual data were then averaged.Results.We found ERS to be mainly associated with optimal-automatic performance, in agreement with the “neural efficiency hypothesis.” We also observed more ERD as related to optimal-controlled performance in conditions of “neural adaptability” and proficient use of cortical resources.Discussion.These findings are congruent with the MAP conceptualization of four performance states, in which unique psychophysiological states underlie distinct performance-related experiences. From an applied point of view, our findings suggest that the MAP model can be used as a framework to develop performance enhancement strategies based on cognitive and neurofeedback techniques.

Novel state-of-the-art amplifier and cap systems enable Electroencephalography (EEG) recording outside of stationary lab systems during physical exercise and body motion. However, extensive preparation time, cleaning, and limited long-term stability of conventional gel-based electrode systems pose significant limitations in out-of-the-lab conditions. Dry electrode systems may contribute to rapid and repetitive mobile EEG acquisition with significantly reduced preparation time, reduced cleaning requirements, and possible self-application by the volunteer but are known for higher channel failure probability and increased sensitivity to movement artifacts. We performed a counterbalanced repeated measure endurance cycling study to objectively validate the performance and applicability of a novel commercially available 64-channel dry electrode cap for sport science. A total of 17 healthy volunteers participated in the study, performing an endurance cycling paradigm comprising five phases: (I) baseline EEG, (II) pre-cycling EEG, (III) endurance cycling, (IV) active recovery, and (V) passive recovery. We compared the performance of the 64-channel dry electrode cap with a commercial gel-based cap system in terms of usability metrics, reliability, and signal characteristics. Furthermore, we validated the performance of the dry cap during a realistic sport science investigation, verifying the hypothesis of a systematic, reproducible shift of the individual alpha peak frequency (iAPF) induced by physical effort. The average preparation time of the dry cap was one-third of the gel-based electrode caps. The average channel reliability of the dry cap varied between 80 ± 15% (Phase I), 66 ± 19% (Phase III), and 91 ± 10% (Phase V). In comparison, the channel reliability of the gel-based cap varied between 95 ± 3, 85 ± 9, and 82 ± 9%, respectively. No considerable differences were evident for the comfort evaluations nor the signal characteristics of both caps. A within-volunteers repeated measure analysis of variance (RM-ANOVA) did not show significant effects of the electrode type on the iAPF [F(1,12) = 1.670, p = 0.221, ${\mathrm{\eta }}_{\text{p}}^2$ = 0.122, Power = 0.222]. However, a significant increase of the iAPF exists from Phase II to Phases IV and V due to exhaustive physical task. In conclusion, we demonstrated that dry electrode cap is equivalent to the gel-based electrode cap based on signal characteristics, comfort, and signal information content, thereby confirming the usefulness of dry electrodes in sports science and other mobile applications involving ample movement.

Background: The COVID-19 pandemic impacted on the sporting field, with athletes constrained in home isolation without the possibility to train and compete in their usual environments. This situation has been investigated within the theoretical frameworks of athletic identity and cognitive emotion regulation. Objectives: The objectives of our investigation were to: (a) validate the athletic identity measurement scale (AIMS) for use in Italian language; and (b) explore differences by gender, typology of sport (individual vs. team), and competitive level (elite vs. non-elite) in athletic identity and in cognitive emotion regulation during the Covid-19 lockdown period. Methods: To achieve these objectives, the reliability and construct validity of the Italian version of the AIMS have been tested in Study 1. Multivariate and univariate analyses were run to evaluate differences between different groups of athletes in Study 2. Results: Results from Study 1 suggest a 3-factor higher order model of athletic identity. Results from Study 2 highlight that, during this lockdown period, elite athletes and team sports athletes show higher athletic identity. Cognitive emotion regulation strategies are different for gender and for competitive level. Finally, athletes with higher athletic identity tend to ruminate and catastrophize more. Conclusions: The present multi-study paper contributes to the theoretical field with a validated measure of athletic identity in Italian language. It also provides some practical implications that could apply in this situation of isolation and can be extended to cases such as those of injury or illness.

Background: Inactivity is a major factor contributing to adverse health in people with intellectual disabilities (IDs). While it is generally agreed that physical activity (PA)/sport‐based interventions promote cognitive and social development in the general population, little is known about their specific benefits in adults with ID. The aims of this systematic review were (a) to examine the effects of PA/sport‐based interventions on intention, motivation and attitude regarding PA/sport participation in adults with ID and (b) to investigate the influence of these psychological factors on behavioural change (e.g. PA level) and quality of life.Methods: A systematic review has been conducted searching four electronic databases (i.e. SCOPUS, Web of Science, PubMed and Cochrane Library). Studies were included if written in English, peer reviewed, had primary research data, and measured intention, motivation, attitude, behavioural outcomes or quality of life.Results: Thirteen articles met our inclusion criteria of which 10 explored the effects of PA/sport as part of a multi‐component intervention. Most investigated outcomes were exercise self‐efficacy and quality of life. Five studies measured exercise self‐efficacy, and four of them found significant changes. One study found a significant improvement in quality of life and another study in life satisfaction. We observed lack of sport‐based interventions, few data about people with severe ID and limited psychological measures.Conclusions: Personal and environmental factors are key components of behavioural change. Support of caregivers and individualised instructions may benefit exercise self‐efficacy. There is lack of information about the effects of psychological factors on behavioural change and quality of life in adults with ID.

We conducted a counterbalanced repeated measure trial to investigate the effect of different internal and external associative strategies on endurance performance. Seventeen college-aged students were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions to test the notion that different attention-performance types (optimal Type 1, functional Type 2, and dysfunctional Type 3) would influence endurance time on a cycling task. Specifically, Type 1 represented an effortless and automatic, “flow-feeling” attentional mode. Type 2 referred to an associative focus directed at core components of the task. Type 3 represented an attentional focus directed at irrelevant components of the task. Participants completed three time-to-exhaustion-tests while reporting their perceived exertion and affective states (arousal and hedonic tone). Results revealed that Type 1 and Type 2 attentional strategies, compared with Type 3 strategy, exerted functional effects on performance, whereas a Type 3 strategy was linked to lower performance, and lower levels of arousal and pleasantness. Applied implications are discussed.