Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is characterised by problems with social interaction, verbal and nonverbal communication and repetitive behaviour. In mice, the 14th postnatal day is believed to correspond to the third trimester of human embryonic development and is considered a vital period for central nervous system development. It has been shown that ASD affects 2 to 3 times more male than female individuals. In the present study, ASD was induced in 14 postnatal day (PND) BALB/c mice using valproic acid (VPA). VPA administration brought about substantial differences in the histoarchitecture of the brain in both male and female mice, linked to behavioural deficits. We observed that both male and female mice showed similar morphological changes in the prefrontal cortex, hippocampus and Purkinje cells. We also observed hair loss from PND 17 to 25, which was again similar between male and female mice. However, there were higher rates of change in the cerebral cortex, frontal cortex and temporal lobe and hippocampus in VPA-treated male animals. With respect to the cerebellum, we did not observe any alterations by haematoxylin and eosin (H&E) staining, but detailed morphological observation using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) showed a higher rate of phenotype changes in VPA-treated male animals. Moreover, 5-HT2A receptor protein levels were upregulated in the cerebral cortex, hippocampus and Purkinje cells in VPA-treated male mice compared with control animals and VPA-treated female mice, as shown by immunohistochemical analysis. Based on all these findings, we conclude that male animals are more susceptible to VPA-induced ASD than females.

Pregnant women are exposed to various contaminants through foods, with environmental toxicants and aflatoxin (AF) being among the major food contaminants. Therefore, this review was conducted for a better perspective on the AF exposure during pregnancy or infancy, highlighting how exposure through the mother (via placenta and breast milk) and directly through infant foods ultimately affects infant health. The literature suggests that AF exposure during pregnancy may lead to maternal anaemia, premature delivery, pregnancy loss or decreased number of live births. AF crosses through the placenta and also passes through breast milk. AF exposure during pregnancy may also lead to deleterious effects on the fetus or infants such as reduced fetal growth, low birth weight, impairment of linear or long bone growth and developmental delay such as small head circumference and reduced brain size, stillbirth or fetal death. It may also have an adverse effect on some organs and organ systems, causing aberrations such as neonatal jaundice and disrupting hormone synthesis. In the Indian context, there are limited clinical studies to assess the health effects of AF exposure during pregnancy. For the first time, we have made an attempt to estimate the AF exposure by calculating the AF estimated daily intake using the empirical formulae based on several reported studies. However, more research needs to be undertaken to understand the AF exposure outcomes during pregnancy. The data presented in this review warrant more clinical studies in India on maternal AF exposure to elucidate the birth outcomes and associated infant health outcomes.

The purpose of this study was to see the effect of fluoride (F) in Wistar NIN rats in a dose and time-dependent manner. Male rats (n=36) were taken and were randomly divided into six groups (Group I: control, group II: 5 mg/L F, Group III: 10 mg/L F, Group IV: 15 mg/L F, Group V: 50 mg/L F and Group VI: 100 mg/L F). Animals were examined at 3-time points of 30, 60 and 90 days for F toxicity changes. The results indicated that the F induced dose and time-dependent diet intake, body weight gain, food efficiency ratio, dental fluorosis, urinary, serum, bone and teeth F levels and histopathological changes in liver and kidney tissue. The significant increase in exposure of F through water in groups V and VI as compared to other groups has shown alterations in their food efficiency ratio, body weight gain, and the significant increase in the urinary and serum F levels. Histopathology of the kidney showed few dilated tubules in the kidney of group VI compared to all other groups. Whereas histopathology of the liver showed microvacuolation in groups V and VI compared to groups I, II and III. However, there were no significant differences between the organ weight ratios of different organs among all the groups. In conclusion, the dose-dependent effect of F starts at 100, 50 and 15mg/L from first, second and third months respectively, however, there were no significant differences in 5 and 10 mg/L F groups after 3 months.