Introduction: The field of artificial intelligence (AI) is rapidly expanding, with many applications seen routinely in health care, industry, and education, and increasingly in workplaces. Although there is growing evidence of applications of AI in workplaces across all industries to simplify and/or automate tasks there is a limited understanding of the role that AI contributes in addressing occupational safety and health (OSH) concerns. Methods: This paper introduces a new framework called Risk Evolution, Detection, Evaluation, and Control of Accidents (REDECA) that highlights the role that AI plays in the anticipation and control of exposure risks in a worker’s immediate environment. Two hundred and sixty AI papers across five sectors (oil and gas, mining, transportation, construction, and agriculture) were reviewed using the REDECA framework to highlight current applications and gaps in OSH and AI fields. Results: The REDECA framework highlighted the unique attributes and research focus of each of the five industrial sectors. The majority of evidence of AI in OSH research within the oil/gas and transportation sectors focused on the development of sensors to detect hazardous situations. In construction the focus was on the use of sensors to detect incidents. The research in the agriculture sector focused on sensors and actuators that removed workers from hazardous conditions. Application of the REDECA framework highlighted AI/OSH strengths and opportunities in various industries and potential areas for collaboration. Conclusions: As AI applications across industries continue to increase, further exploration of the benefits and challenges of AI applications in OSH is needed to optimally protect worker health, safety and well-being.

Automated agricultural machinery has advanced significantly in the previous ten years; however, the ability of such robots to operate safely will be critical to their commercialization. This study provides a holistic evaluation of the work carried out so far in the field of automated agricultural machines’ safety, as well as a framework for future research considerations. Previous automated agricultural machines’ safety-related studies are analyzed and grouped into three categories: (1) environmental perception, (2) risk assessment as well as risk mitigation, and (3) human factors as well as ergonomics. The key findings are as follows: (1) The usage of single perception, multiple perception sensors, developing datasets of agricultural environments, different algorithms, and external solutions to improve sensor performance were all explored as options to improve automated agricultural machines’ safety. (2) Current risk assessment methods cannot be efficient when dealing with new technology, such as automated agricultural machines, due to a lack of pre-existing knowledge. Full compliance with the guidelines provided by the current International Organization for Standardization (ISO 18497) cannot ensure automated agricultural machines’ safety. A regulatory framework and being able to test the functionalities of automated agricultural machines within a reliable software environment are efficient ways to mitigate risks. (3) Knowing foreseeable human activity is critical to ensure safe human–robot interaction.

Since 1977, the Purdue University Agricultural Safety and Health Program has managed a database with on going efforts to identify, document, and analyze information on injuries and fatalities in all forms of agricultural confined spaces, with special attention given to incidents involving grain, forage, and manure storage structures and agricultural transport vehicles. The database contains over 1650 cases from 1964 to the present and two cases before 1964. The average number of cases in the last ten years remains at a high of 63 cases per year. Overall, confined-space related cases were documented in 43 states, with the most occurring in the Corn Belt region. More than 1000 (62%) of these cases were grain-related entrapments; however, in recent years the proportion of grain-related cases has declined with more aggressive surveillance for all types of agricultural confined-space incidents including falls and entanglements inside grain storage structures. Grain entrapments represented 49% of all confined space cases in 2013 as compared to earlier years when nearly all documented cases were grain entrapment related. There has also been a shift in location distribution of cases, with the southern states now representing 18% of all recent cases. These findings are critical for informing the discussion on developing regulations, design standards, and safety programs to reduce the frequency and severity of these incidents.

This article summarizes data gathered on 246 documented cases of children and youth under the age of 21 involved in grain storage and handling incidents in agricultural workplaces from 1964 to 2013 in the U.S. that have been entered into the Purdue Agricultural Confined Space Incident Database. The database is the result of ongoing efforts to collect and file information on documented injuries, fatalities, and entrapments in all forms of agricultural confined spaces. While the frequency of injuries and fatalities involving children and youth in agriculture has decreased in recent years, incidents related to agricultural confined spaces, especially grain storage and handling facilities, have remained largely unchanged during the same period. Approximately 21% of all documented incidents involved children and youth (age 20 and younger), and more than 77% of all documented incidents were fatal, suggesting an under-reporting of non-fatal incidents. Findings indicate that the majority of youth incidents occurred at OSHA exempt agricultural worksites. The states reporting the most incidents were Indiana, Iowa, Nebraska, Illinois, and Minnesota. Grain transport vehicles represented a significant portion of incidents involving children under the age of 16. The overwhelming majority of victims were male, and most incidents (50%) occurred in June, October, and November. Recommendations include developing intervention strategies that target OSHA exempt farms, feedlots, and seed processing facilities; preparing engineering design and best practice standards that reduce the exposure of children and youth to agricultural confined spaces; and developing gender-specific safety resources that incorporate gender-sensitive strategies to communicate safety information to the population of young males with the greatest risk of exposure to the hazards of agricultural confined spaces.

Objectives: Grain entrapments and engulfments are one of most common hazards associated with grain storage facilities, with over 1,140 such entrapments/engulfments documented since the 1970s. The objective of the study was to determine the factors that contribute to injury or death in grain entrapment, engulfment, and extrication cases. Methods: A literature review, including data contained in the Purdue Agricultural Confined Spaces Incident Database (PACSID), was conducted to determine the conditions that the body experiences during an entrapment or engulfment in grains and during extrication efforts. Results: Based on the review, the conditions a human body faces during an entrapment, engulfment, or extraction can be split into two broad categories—environmental and physiological/psychological. The environmental factors depend on the grain’s properties, depth of entrapment or engulfment, position of the victim’s body, and characteristics of the storage unit, which include the grain’s lateral pressure, vertical pressure, and weight, as well as friction, oxygen availability and diffusion rate, and grain temperature. The physiological and psychological factors are related to the individual’s age and physical and psychological conditions, and manifest themselves in terms of oxygen consumption, asphyxiation (including aspiration, lack of oxygen, compression or splinting of the thorax), blood flow, and heart rate. Conclusion: Of all the above factors, a review of fatality data contained in the PACSID indicate that aspiration, asphyxiation, grain weight, and lateral pressure are most likely the primary cause of death for most entrapment victims. Research gaps found by this study include an understanding of the impact of lateral pressure on lung expansion and oxygen availability and consumption rate, and the need for more case studies to accurately determine cause of death.

No previous studies have been found that document the level of use or validate the effectiveness of safety harnesses and lifelines in the prevention of or extrication from grain entrapments or engulfments. This article addresses that void via analysis of the data contained in the Purdue Agricultural Confined Space Incident Database. A total of 1,147 cases involving entrapments or engulfments in grain masses were mined for terms that might indicate the use of a safety harness, lifeline, fall restraint system, rope, or outside observer. Case information ranged from brief news accounts to comprehensive investigation results. The review turned up 38 incidents (<5%) in which these safety devices were identified as having been used by either workers or rescuers during access to a storage structure. In 26 of the 38 cases (68%) where safety devices were identified, the entrapment or engulfment resulted in a fatality. The two most common reasons cited for failure of these devices were (1) that the lifeline or rope was too long (17 incidents) and (2) that the worker had removed the harness with the attached lifeline while in the structure (6 incidents). It was also determined that these devices, if used improperly, can lead to secondary injuries of the victim. The preliminary evidence suggests that use of these devices alone does not ensure the user's safety and may even provide a false sense of security if used without proper training. It was further found that an approved body harness and safety line provided little or no protection from either entrapment or falls if used in the presence of vertically crusted grain surfaces, without proper anchors, or not in conjunction with outside observers. The presented results are important for safety professionals to consider as they endeavor to reduce the risk of grain entrapment and engulfment incidents through training, education, selection of personal protective equipment, etc., and should contribute to the development of new structural standards for grain bins. It is the intent of this article to elucidate the importance of training and proper use of these safety devices.