Carotenoids are lipophilic isoprenoid compounds synthesized by all photosynthetic organisms and some non-photosynthetic prokaryotes and fungi. With some notable exceptions, animals (including humans) do not produce carotenoids de novo but take them in their diets. In photosynthetic systems carotenoids are essential for photoprotection against excess light and contribute to light harvesting, but perhaps they are best known for their properties as natural pigments in the yellow to red range. Carotenoids can be associated to fatty acids, sugars, proteins, or other compounds that can change their physical and chemical properties and influence their biological roles. Furthermore, oxidative cleavage of carotenoids produces smaller molecules such as apocarotenoids, some of which are important pigments and volatile (aroma) compounds. Enzymatic breakage of carotenoids can also produce biologically active molecules in both plants (hormones, retrograde signals) and animals (retinoids). Both carotenoids and their enzymatic cleavage products are associated with other processes positively impacting human health. Carotenoids are widely used in the industry as food ingredients, feed additives, and supplements. This review, contributed by scientists of complementary disciplines related to carotenoid research, covers recent advances and provides a perspective on future directions on the subjects of carotenoid metabolism, biotechnology, and nutritional and health benefits.

Carotenoids are isoprenoids widely distributed in foods that have been always part of the diet of humans. Unlike the other so-called food bioactives, some carotenoids can be converted into retinoids exhibiting vitamin A activity, which is essential for humans. Furthermore, they are much more versatile as they are relevant in foods not only as sources of vitamin A, but also as natural pigments, antioxidants, and health-promoting compounds. Lately, they are also attracting interest in the context of nutricosmetics, as they have been shown to provide cosmetic benefits when ingested in appropriate amounts. In this work, resulting from the collaborative work of participants of the COST Action European network to advance carotenoid research and applications in agro-food and health (EUROCAROTEN, www.eurocaroten.eu, https://www.cost.eu/actions/CA15136/#tabs|Name:overview) research on carotenoids in foods and feeds is thoroughly reviewed covering aspects such as analysis, carotenoid food sources, carotenoid databases, effect of processing and storage conditions, new trends in carotenoid extraction, daily intakes, use as human, and feed additives are addressed. Furthermore, classical and recent patents regarding the obtaining and formulation of carotenoids for several purposes are pinpointed and briefly discussed. Lastly, emerging research lines as well as research needs are highlighted.

A food frequency questionnaire (FFQ) and carotenoid database with information onα- and β-carotene, lutein, lycopene and β-cryptoxanthin was prepared and used to compare the carotenoid intakes in five European countries: UK, Republic of Ireland, Spain, France and The Netherlands. Eighty, age- (25–45 years) and sex-matched volunteers were recruited in each of the five countries. A FFQ and carotenoid database was prepared of the most commonly consumed carotenoid rich foods in the participating countries and the information was used to calculate frequency and intake of carotenoid-rich foods. The median total carotenoid intake based on the sum of the five carotenoids, was significantly higher (P<0.05) in France (16.1 mg/day) and lower in Spain (9.5 mg/day,) than the other countries, where the average intake was approximately 14 mg/day. Comparison of dietary source of carotenoids showed that carrots were the major source of β-carotene in all countries except Spain where spinach was most important. Likewise, carrots were also the main source ofα-carotene. Tomato or tomato products, were the major source of lycopene. Lutein was mainly obtained from peas in Republic of Ireland and the UK, however, spinach was found to be the major source in other countries. In all countries, β-cryptoxanthin was primarily obtained from citrus fruit. Comparing the data with that from specific European country studies suggests that the FFQ and carotenoid database described in the present paper can be used for comparative dietary intake studies within Europe. The results show that within Europe there are differences in the specific intake of some carotenoids which are related to different foods consumed by people in different countries.

Lutein is one of the most widely found carotenoids distributed in fruits and vegetables frequently consumed. Its presence in human tissues is entirely of dietary origin. Distribution of lutein among tissues is similar to other carotenoids but, along with zeaxanthin, they are found selectively at the centre of the retina, being usually referred to as macular pigments. Lutein has no provitamin A activity in man but it displays biological activities that have attracted great attention in relation to human health. Epidemiological studies have shown inconsistent associations between high intake or serum levels of lutein and lower risk for developing cardiovascular disease, several types of cancer, cataracts and age-related maculopathy. Also, lutein supplementation has provided both null and positive results on different biomarkers of oxidative stress although it is effective in increasing macular pigment concentration and in improving visual function in some, but not all, subjects with different eye pathologies. Overall, data suggest that whereas serum levels of lutein have, at present, no predictive, diagnostic or prognostic value in clinical practice, its determination may be very helpful in assessing compliance and efficacy of intervention as well as potential toxicity. In addition, available evidence suggests that a serum lutein concentration between 0·6 and 1·05 μmol/l seems to be a safe, dietary achievable and desirable target potentially associated with beneficial impact on visual function and, possibly, on the development of other chronic diseases. The use of lutein as a biomarker of exposure in clinical practice may provide some rationale for assessing its relationship with human health as well as its potential use within the context of evidence-based medicine.

There is uncertainty regarding carotenoid intake recommendations, because positive and negative health effects have been found or are correlated with carotenoid intake and tissue levels (including blood, adipose tissue, and the macula), depending on the type of study (epidemiological vs intervention), the dose (physiological vs supraphysiological) and the matrix (foods vs supplements, isolated or used in combination). All these factors, combined with interindividual response variations (eg, depending on age, sex, disease state, genetic makeup), make the relationship between carotenoid intake and their blood/tissue concentrations often unclear and highly variable. Although blood total carotenoid concentrations <1000 nmol/L have been related to increased chronic disease risk, no dietary reference intakes (DRIs) exist. Although high total plasma/serum carotenoid concentrations of up to 7500 nmol/L are achievable after supplementation, a plateauing effect for higher doses and prolonged intake is apparent. In this review and position paper, the current knowledge on carotenoids in serum/plasma and tissues and their relationship to dietary intake and health status is summarized with the aim of proposing suggestions for a “normal,” safe, and desirable range of concentrations that presumably are beneficial for health. Existing recommendations are likewise evaluated and practical dietary suggestions are included.