The study aims to show the possibility of using terrestrial laser scanning and unmanned aircraft as a tool for obtaining high resolution photogrammetric material in order to develop colourful, metric orthoplans and 3D models of an architectural object. The object of the study was the church dedicated to Saint. Bartholomew the Apostle in Mogila and the chapel of St. Malgorzata at Salwator in Krakow. Field activities of the church of St. Bartholomew the Apostle in Mogila covered the execution of the raid by means of the unmanned aerial vehicle DJI Phantom 4 Pro, acquisition of ground-based photos with a non-metric Nikon D3100 camera, and the measurement of photopoints with an electronic total station. UAV was manually moved to a height of 20m in relation to the roof of the church, just above the turret (the turret located above the intersection of the transept with the nave). Then, the radius was specified by moving 10m away from the edge of the subject. After setting the minimum orbital speed (to avoid blurring the images), the object was automatically looped. In this mode, 76 images were recorded around the whole object. In the next stage the flight took place by hand. At a height of 10 m from the ground, 32 photos of the southern and eastern walls and a part of the western wall were made from a distance of approx. 15 m from the façade. After completing the BSP raid, the SLR was started. Obtained in this way, 120 photos with a longitudinal base of approx. 3.30 m (coverage above 70%). The camera allowed to reach places inaccessible to the UAV and take photos of the lowest parts of the facade, maintaining an angle close to the straight one in relation to the vertical plane. The last of the planned field activities was the measurement of the photopoints on the geodetic network for the purpose of later giving the object georeference and the right scale, as well as optimizing the position of the camera and orientation of the photos. The last, final stage of the work was the creation of orthophotoplanes for four elevations. The summary discusses the results of the work and assessed the capabilities of unmanned ships as part of the creation of orthophotoplanes and the creation of 3D models. The measurement of the object was made of 7 sites providing a common area coverage. In addition, 8 points were distributed evenly around the measured chapel indicative in the form of matte, glass balls placed on the ground, necessary in the process of clouding points from individual positions. The number of posts and balls was dictated by the nature of the measured object and the need to obtain as few dead zones as possible. Despite the efforts, it was impossible to avoid the appearance of dead zones, which are located in the place of setting up the lighthouse on the dome of the chapel. An additional obstacle turned out to be the trees growing in the vicinity of the chapel, which partially covered with its walls the walls of the building. The effect of field work was to obtain 7 images of point clouds and 8 images of landmarks. After cleaning individual images, the cloud was created and the 3D image of the object was obtained and an average error of 3 mm was obtained. The final effect of cleaning and depositing a point cloud was the three-dimensional shape of the object, which served the last stage of the work, which was modeling. Due to the conditions in the area, the cloud received had some dead zones, including the one at the connection of the lighthouse with the dome. After completing the orientation of the point cloud, the final stage of this study was to create a 3D model of the chapel.

This study presents an integrated workflow for acquiring, processing, and fusing terrestrial laser scanning and Unmanned Aerial Vehicle (UAV) photogrammetric data to generate digital twins of heritage buildings within Heritage Building Information Modeling (HBIM) and Historical Geographic Information System (HGIS) environments. Using a historic wooden church as a case study, the proposed approach demonstrates improved completeness and geometric quality compared to UAV-only models. Dimensional differences between UAV-only and integrated models ranged from 0.8 to 3.2 cm, confirming internal consistency and suitability for documentation purposes. The workflow standardizes key stages of acquisition, scaling, and point cloud fusion, and establishes links between HBIM models at Level of Detail (LOD) 100–300 and conservation requirements. Additionally, it identifies integration points for Artificial Intelligence (AI)-based automation, supporting future developments in classification, segmentation, and conversion of 2D documentation into HBIM. The results highlight the potential of terrestrial laser scanning (TLS)-UAV integration for accurate, replicable heritage documentation and spatial–historical analysis.

Landscape evaluation process requires access to particular information resources making it possible to regionalize (divide into zones) the area under investigation. Thus, the starting point is landscape assessment and evaluation followed by regionalization. As a result of this step, we determine...

The article presents the role of the landscape unit in the context of digital cultural heritage, analysing the theoretical foundations and concepts on the example of Czułów, a village with a traditional agricultural landscape. In an era of rapid socio-economic change, which often leads to the degradation of traditional landscapes, digital technology is becoming a key instrument in the documentation, analysis and protection of cultural heritage. Modern technologies such as geographic information systems (GIS), 3D modelling, photogrammetry and remote sensing enable precise mapping and the reconstruction of historical land use. This enables a more detailed and comprehensive study of landscape structures and their dynamics, supporting conservation measures and sustainable development planning. The study of cultural landscapes, involving the analysis of structure, function and change over time, is crucial to understanding the complex relationship between humans and the environment. In particular, landscape units, such as the agricultural terraces at Czułów, reflect historical forms of land use and ways of adapting to natural conditions, thus being important elements of cultural heritage. Their protection and documentation with new technologies is essential to preserve these unique values for future generations. A multi-criteria approach, which combines different perspectives – geomorphological, use, ecological and cultural – is crucial in landscape analysis as it enables a more comprehensive recognition and understanding of the value of rural space. In this way, a more complete picture of landscape structure and function can be obtained, which is particularly important in terms of protecting agricultural landscapes such as Czułów. The traditional landscape of the village with elements of agricultural terraces and a mosaic of land uses represents not only a natural value but also a cultural one, reflecting the enduring interactions between man and nature. Rural landscapes here are not only a testimony to the historical use of the land, but also a place where the past meets the present, influencing the identity of local communities and shaping their future. Digital technologies allow for the documentation of both material and immaterial aspects of the landscape, fostering a better understanding of past land uses and cultural values that may not be apparent to the naked eye. This approach provides a more accurate assessment of historical and cultural values and leads to the planning of effective conservation strategies. The need to adapt conservation efforts to local environmental and social conditions and the challenges of digital archiving of heritage, such as authenticity and accuracy of historical reconstructions, should also be made clear.

This paper presents the results of laboratory research regarding the influence of the structure and color of decorative renders on the accuracy of measurements conducted using Leica ScanStation P40 terrestrial laser scanning (TLS). The study examined whether and how differences in render structure and color (brightness) affect the quality of data acquired via TLS. The color and brightness measurements of the test fields were performed using a flatbed scanner. The RGB color and luminance analysis of the test fields were conducted using the software “ImageJ” version 1.54g. The measurements were conducted for light-colored renders (average brightness from 143 to 243). The research found no clear relationship established between the type and color of render and the accuracy of laser scanning. The results indicate increased measurement dispersion with decreasing render brightness. It was found that the standard deviation of distance measurements for Scratched-type renders is approximately 26% higher than for Roughcast-type render.

In the present day, we are witnessing the dynamic development of our country. We observe a growing number of new construction investments, which are designed to meet the needs of the market. Streets are being widened to cope with the growing number of vehicles, modern office buildings and skyscrapers are being built in the largest Polish cities, which at the same time have valuable architectural objects in their oldest districts. Such objects, due to their age, are susceptible to damage, and thus to the threat that their value will be lost. Such damage may occur in the course of construction works that destabilize the soil structure, which may lead to damage to the building’s foundations and, as a result, harm or destroy the most important structural elements of the monument. Another important factor is the operation of industrial plants that emit harmful substances, which have a negative impact on façades and other external elements, such as, for example, relief sculptures. It may be difficult and complicated to remove the effects of the risks described above if the documentation necessary to carry out protection or renovation works is incomplete or insufficiently detailed. A separate issue worth discussing are architectural objects made of perishable materials such as wood [Bernat et al. 2014]. There are many objects of wooden architecture in Poland, such as: Catholic and Orthodox churches, open-air museums, and other relics of bygone eras. Apart from the obvious threat of fire and its negative effects, one can also mention the negative impact of precipitation, whether in the form of rain causing the wood to soak and, as a result, to rot, or the risk of damaging the foundations during a flood. The listed threats have a direct and indirect impact on the structure of such historical buildings. Therefore, it is important to take care of their detailed survey, with the view to preserving and maintaining them. It is also worth mentioning a large number of castles located in our country. The condition of their structures is very diverse and ranges from newly restored buildings to those with only foundations left. In all cases, it is important to obtain accurate plans and models of these building objects. This will serve to preserve their dimensions and shapes. Such data can be used to develop documentation necessary to carry out reconstruction or renovation in order to return the building to its former glory, and thus obtain another object worth seeing.