Modern automated and semi-automated methods of shape analysis depart from the coordinates of the points in the outline of a figure and obtain, based on artificial vision algorithms, descriptive parameters (i.e., the length, width, area, and circularity index). These methods omit an important factor: the resemblance of the examined images to a geometric figure. We have described a method based on the comparison of the outline of seed images with geometric figures. The J index is the percentage of similarity between a seed image and a geometric figure used as a model. This allows the description and classification of wheat kernels based on their similarity to geometric models. The figures used are the ellipse and the lens of different major/minor axis ratios. Kernels of different species, subspecies and varieties of wheat adjust to different figures. A relationship is found between their ploidy levels and morphological type. Kernels of diploid einkorn and ancient tetraploid emmer varieties adjust to the lens and have curvature values in their poles superior to modern “bread” varieties. Kernels of modern varieties (hexaploid common wheat) adjust to an ellipse of aspect ratio = 1.6, while varieties of tetraploid durum and Polish wheat and hexaploid spelt adjust to an ellipse of aspect ratio = 2.4.

Background: Epipactis helleborineis an Eurasian orchid species which prefers woodland environments but it may also spontaneously and successfully colonise human-made artificial and disturbed habitats such as roadsides, town parks and gardens. It is suggested that orchids colonising anthropogenic habitats are characterised by a specific set of features (e.g., large plant size, fast flower production). However, as it is not well known how pollinator diversity and reproductive success ofE. helleborinediffers in populations in anthropogenic habitats compared to populations from natural habitats, we wanted to compare pollinator diversity and reproductive success of this orchid species between natural and anthropogenic habitat types.Methods: Pollination biology, reproductive success and autogamy in populations ofE. helleborinefrom anthropogenic (roadside) and natural (forest) habitats were compared. Eight populations (four natural and four human-disturbed ones) in two seasons were studied according to height of plants, length of inflorescences, as well as numbers of juvenile shoots, flowering shoots, flowers, and fruits. The number and diversity of insect pollinators were studied in one natural and two human-disturbed populations.Results: Reproductive success (the ratio of the number of flowers to the number of fruits) in the populations from anthropogenic habitats was significantly higher than in the natural habitats. Moreover, plants from anthropogenic habitats were larger than those from natural ones. In both types of populations, the main insect pollinators were Syrphidae, Culicidae, Vespidae, Apidae and Formicidae. With respect to the type of pollinators’ mouth-parts, chewing (39%), sponging (34%) and chewing-sucking (20%) pollinators prevailed in anthropogenic habitats. In natural habitats, pollinators with sponging (55%) and chewing mouth-parts (32%) dominated, while chewing-sucking and piercing-sucking insects accounted for 9% and 4% respectively.Discussion: We suggest that higher reproductive success ofE. helleborinein the populations from anthropogenic habitats than in the populations from natural habitats may result from a higher number of visits by pollinators and their greater species diversity, but also from the larger size of plants growing in such habitats. Moreover, our data clearly show thatE. helleborineis an opportunistic species with respect to pollinators, with a wide spectrum of pollinating insects. Summarising,E. helleborineis a rare example of orchid species whose current range is not declining. Its ability to make use of anthropogenically altered habitats has allowed its significant spatial range expansion, and even successful colonisation of North America.

The aim of the paper was to analyse the morphological variability of Consolida regalis Gray (common name Forking Larkspur) seeds in populations derived from different geographic origins. A review of available literature showed scarcity of data on seed sizes and a complete lack of information describing the morphological variation of C. regalis seeds in the geographic gradient. Therefore, the main aim of the study was to analyse the morphological variability of C. regalis seeds from south-eastern and central Europe. Larkspur seeds, collected during expeditions spanning 2012–2014 from 29 sites located in Bulgaria, Romania, Moldova and Poland, were the study material. Four biometric traits were analysed, that is, the length, the width, the perimeter and the area of the seeds. The pictures of the surface structure and sculpture of the seeds were made using the scanning electron microscope (SEM). The results showed differences in biometric traits and the seed sculpture across the latitudinal transect. There was a trend observed of an increase in the length, the width, the perimeter and the area of the seeds towards the northern border of the geographic species range. Besides the geographic factor, the morphological variation of larkspur seeds was affected by environmental conditions (mainly temperature) in which plants grew and availability of habitat resources.

The genus Taraxacum is one of the largest and taxonomically most complicated apomictic genera. Currently, it is considered to consist of over 2800 species placed within 60 sections. Due to the large number of species, and their uniform morphological design and plasticity of leaves, the identification of plants at the species level is challenging even for specialists. This problem significantly hinders the study of their properties and the rational use of these valuable medicinal and nutritional plants. This paper presents the results of research on the morphology and micromorphology of achenes of 28 Taraxacum species of sect. Palustria and for comparison one species per section of: Erythrosperma, Naevosa, Piesis, and Taraxacum. The achenes were measured with a stereoscopic microscope and a biometric program, and micromorphological studies were performed by scanning electron microscopy. It has been shown that traits associated with achene morphology and micromorphology have a high diagnostic value, allowing us to distinguish sections as well as species within the sect. Palustria. Based on the examined achene features, a dichotomous key for determining the studied species was constructed.

Background: Polyploid specimens are usually characterized by greater exuberance: they reach larger sizes and/or have a larger number of some organs.Festuca amethystinaL. belongs to the sectionAulaxyper. Based on morphological features, four subspecies ofF. amethystinahave been already identified. On the other hand, it has two cytotypes: diploid and tetraploid. The main aim of our study was to distinguish morphological differences between the cytotypes ofF. amethystina, assuming that its phenotype differs significantly.Methods: The nuclear DNA content was measured by flow cytometry in dry leaves from specimens originating from 13 populations of F. amethystina. Several macrometric and micrometric traits of stems, spikelets and leaf blades were taken into account in the comparative analysis of two cytotypes.Results: In the case of cytotypes, specimens of tetraploids were larger than diploids. The conducted morphometric analysis of leaf cross-sections showed significant differences between the cytotypes.Discussion: The research has confirmed for the first time that in the case ofF. amethystinathe principle of greater exuberance of polyploids is true. Differences between the cytotypes are statistically significant, however, they are not enough to make easy the distinction of cytotypes on the basis of the measurements themselves. Our findings favor the rule known inFestucataxonomy as a whole, i.e. that the ploidy level can be one of the main classification criteria.