A new method of Na-activation of raw bentonite, rich in Ca-montmorillonite, consisting of combined thermal treatment at 200 °C, followed by immediate impregnation with aqueous solution of Na₂CO₃ of concentration corresponding to 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, or 2.0 cation exchange capacity (CEC) of clay, was investigated. Structural and compositional evolution of the activated solids after 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks of storage was monitored by X-ray diffraction (XRD) and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). XRD analysis indicated that within the investigated period of ageing transformation to Na-rich montmorillonite required Na₂CO₃ concentration of at least 1.0 CEC. FTIR spectra showed that, depending on the Na₂CO₃ concentration and ageing time, formation of Na-rich montmorillonite was accompanied by precipitation of poorly crystalline calcite, amorphous calcium carbonate, gaylussite (a double calcium-sodium carbonate), and portlandite (Ca(OH)₂).

Pharmaceutical drugs, including antibiotics and hormonal agents, pose a significant threat to environmental and public health due to their persistent presence in aquatic environments. Colistin (KOL), fluoxetine (FLUO), amoxicillin (AMO), and 17-alpha-ethinylestradiol (EST) are pharmaceuticals (PhCs) that frequently exceed regulatory limits in water and wastewater. Current removal methods are mainly ineffective, necessitating the development of more efficient techniques. This study investigates the use of synthetic zeolite (NaP1_FA) and zeolite-carbon composites (NaP1_C), both derived from fly ash (FA), for the removal of KOL, FLUO, AMO, and EST from aquatic environments. Batch adsorption experiments assessed the effects of contact time, adsorbent dosage, initial concentration, and pH on the removal efficiency of the pharmaceuticals. The results demonstrated that NaP1_FA and NaP1_C exhibited high removal efficiencies for all tested pharmaceuticals, achieving over 90% removal within 2 min of contact time. The Behnajady-Modirshahla-Ghanbary (BMG) kinetic model best described the adsorption processes. The most effective sorption was observed with a sorbent dose of 1–2 g L⁻¹. Regarding removal efficiency, the substances ranked in this order: EST was the highest, followed by AMO, KOL, and FLUO. Sorption efficiency was influenced by the initial pH of the solutions, with optimal performance observed at pH 2–2.5 for KOL and FLUO. The zeolite-carbon composite NaP1_C, due to its hydrophobic nature, showed superior sorption efficiency for hydrophobic pharmaceuticals like FLUO and EST. The spectral analysis reveals that the primary mechanism for immobilizing the tested PhCs on zeolite sorbents is mainly due to physical sorption. This study underscores the potential of utilizing inexpensive, fly ash-derived zeolites and zeolite-carbon composites to remove pharmaceuticals from water effectively. These findings contribute to developing advanced materials for decentralized wastewater treatment systems, directly addressing pollution sources in various facilities.

Erythromycin (EA) is an antibiotic whose concentration in water and wastewater has been reported to be above the standard levels. Since the methods used so far to remove EA from aquatic environments have not been effective, the development of effective methods for EA removal is necessary. In the present study, fly ash (FA)-based zeolite materials, which have not been investigated as EA sorbents before, were used. The possibilities of managing waste FA and using its transformation products for EA sorption were presented. The efficiency of EA removal from experimental solutions and real wastewater was evaluated. In addition, the sorbents’ mineral composition, chemical composition, and physicochemical properties and the effects of adsorbent mass, contact time, initial EA concentration, and pH on EA removal were analyzed. The EA was removed within the first 2 min of the reaction with an efficiency of 99% from experimental solutions and 94% from real wastewater. The maximum adsorption capacities were 314.7 mg g⁻¹ for the fly ash-based synthetic zeolite (NaP1_FA) and 363.0 mg g⁻¹ for the carbon–zeolite composite (NaP1_C). A fivefold regeneration of the NaP1_FA and NaP1_C showed no significant loss of adsorption efficiency. These findings indicate that zeolitic materials effectively remove EA and can be further investigated for removing other pharmaceuticals from water and wastewater.

A new approach to acid activation of raw Ca-bentonite was explored. The method consisted in dehydration of clay by thermal pretreatment at 200 °C, followed by immediate impregnation with H₂SO₄ solution. The acid concentration was 1.5 × or 2.0 × cation exchange capacity (CEC) of clay. The volume of the liquid was adjusted so as to leave the material in the apparently dry state. Structural evolution of the activated solids after 1, 2, 3, and 4 weeks of storage was monitored with X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR), ²⁷Al magic angle spinning nuclear magnetic resonance (MAS NMR), and chemical analysis. In the macroscopically dry solids, the rehydrated interlayer Ca²⁺ underwent rapid exchange with H₃O⁺ and formed extra-framework gypsum. Acid attack on montmorillonite structure resulted in continuous removal of layer forming Mg, Al, and Fe cations, with Mg²⁺ being eliminated most efficiently. No significant damage to the montmorillonite lattice was observed. Al was extracted both from the tetrahedral and the octahedral sheets. Under less acidic conditions, the monohydrated H-montmorillonite changed upon storage to bi-hydrated form, as a result of clay auto-transformation. Higher concentrations of acid in the pore network of clay stabilized the H-form of montmorillonite. The data indicate that compositional transformation of acid impregnated bentonite extended beyond the one month of aging investigated in the present work.

Montmorillonite is a layered clay mineral whose modification by pillaring, i.e., insertion of oxide nanoclusters between the layers, yields porous materials of great potential in sorption and catalysis. In the present study, an unrefined industrial bentonite from Kopernica (Slovakia), containing ca. 70% of montmorillonite, was used for the preparation of Ti-, Zr-, and mixed [Ti,Zr]-pillared clay sorbents. The pillared samples were characterized with X-ray diffraction (XRD), field emission scanning electron microscopy (FESEM), and N₂ adsorption at −196 °C and tested for the capacity of CO₂ sorption at 0 °C and 1 bar pressure. The experiments revealed that pillared samples sorbed at least four times more CO₂ than the parent bentonite. Of the materials tested, the sample pillared with mixed [Ti,Zr] oxide props showed the best performance, which was attributed to its superior microporosity. The results of CO₂ adsorption demonstrated that the cost-effective use of crude industrial bentonite as the sorbent precursor is a viable synthesis option. In another experiment, all pillared montmorillonites were subjected to 24 h exposure at room temperature to a flow of dry CO₂ and then tested using simultaneous thermal analysis (STA) and the mass spectrometry (MS) analysis of the evolving gases (STA/QMS). It was found that interaction with dry CO₂ reduces the amount of bound carbon dioxide and affects the processes of dehydration, dehydroxylation, and the mode of CO₂ binding in the pillared structure.