To evaluate risk factors for death from acute lower respiratory infections (ALRI) in children in low- and middle-income countries. Systematic review and meta-analysis. Observational studies reporting on risk factors for death from ALRI in children below five years in low- and middle income countries. Medline, Embase, Global Health Library, Lilacs, and Web of Science to January 2014 Quality In Prognosis Studies tool with minor adaptations to assess the risk of bias; funnel plots and Egger's test to evaluate publication bias. Out of 10655 papers retrieved, 77 studies from 39 countries (198359 children) met the inclusion criteria. Host and disease characteristics more strongly associated with ALRI mortality were: diagnosis of very severe pneumonia as per WHO definition (odds ratio 9.42, 95% confidence interval 6.37‒13.92); age below two months (5.22, 1.70‒16.03); diagnosis of Pneumocystis Carinii (4.79, 2.67 ‒ 8.61), chronic underlying diseases (4.76, 3.27‒ 6.93); HIV/AIDS (4.68, 3.72‒5.90); and severe malnutrition (OR 4.27, 3.47‒5.25). Socio-economic and environmental factors significantly associated with increased odds of death from ALRI were: young maternal age (1.84, 1.03‒3.31); low maternal education (1.43, 1.13‒1.82); low socio-economic status (1.62, 1.32‒2.00); second-hand smoke exposure (1.52, 1.20 to 1.93); indoor air pollution (3.02, 2.11‒4.31). Immunisation (0.46, 0.36‒0.58) and good antenatal practices (0.50, 0.31‒0.81) were associated with decreased odds of death. Host and disease characteristics as well as socio-economic and environmental determinants affect the risk of death from ALRI in children. Together with the prevention and treatment of chronic diseases, interventions to modify underlying risk factors such as poverty, lack of female education, and poor environmental conditions, should be considered among the strategies to reduce ALRI mortality in children in low- and middle-income countries.

The influence of marketing on infant and young child feeding and health is well recognized, and an International Code was adopted by the World Health Assembly (WHA) in 1981 to reduce inappropriate marketing and protect breastfeeding. Yet the marketing and influencing continue. This scoping review systematically examined the published research evidence on the nature and extent of exposure to International Code violations from 1981 to August 2021. We used several search strategies involving multi‐language databases, organization websites, citation tracking, and expert consultation, to find research items meeting our inclusion criteria. We evaluated 657 items and retained 153 studies from at least 95 countries in the review. The majority of the studies (n = 113) documenting exposure to inappropriate marketing were published since 2010. Studies reported a broad range of marketing violations targeting mothers and families, health workers, and the general public. Marketing via digital platforms and brand extension has become more frequent. The evidence shows the use of misleading and inaccurate labeling and health and nutrition claims in breach of the Code. Our review confirms that violations of the Code have not ceased and calls for renewed attention from the WHA and national governments to protect the health of children and their mothers.

The Delphi technique provides a structured process for collecting and examining group agreement on a topic. It facilitates anonymity and thus reduces the risk of stronger members dominating the group discussion, and it allows geographical spread of the participants as well as low cost and timely return. This article describes the use of Delphi to examine agreement and lack of agreement among an expert panel on what skills a mother needs to learn for hand expression. A Delphi technique can be used for a variety of topics and participants. J Hum Lact. 25(2):220-225.