In recent years, artificial intelligence has had a tremendous impact on every field, and several definitions of its different types have been provided. In the literature, most articles focus on the extraordinary capabilities of artificial intelligence. Recently, some challenges such as security, safety, fairness, robustness, and energy consumption have been reported during the development of intelligent systems. As the usage of intelligent systems increases, the number of new challenges increases. Obviously, during the evolution of artificial narrow intelligence to artificial super intelligence, the viewpoint on the challenges such as security will be changed. In addition, the recent development of human-level intelligence cannot appropriately happen without considering whole challenges in designing intelligent systems. Considering the mentioned situation, no study in the literature summarizes the challenges in designing artificial intelligence. In this paper, a review of the challenges is presented. Then, some important research questions about the future dynamism of challenges and their relationships are answered.

In this paper, an adaptive Petri net (PN), capable of adaptation to environmental changes, is introduced by the fusion of learning automata and PN. In this new model, called learning automata-based adaptive PN (APN-LA), learning automata are used to resolve the conflicts among the transitions. In the proposed APN-LA model, transitions are portioned into several sets of conflicting transitions and each set of conflicting transitions is equipped with a learning automaton which is responsible for controlling the conflicts among transitions in the corresponding transition set. We also generalize the proposed APN-LA to ASPN-LA which is a fusion between LA and stochastic PN (SPN). An application of the proposed ASPN-LA to priority assignment in queuing systems with unknown parameters is also presented.