The global demand for energy has been steadily increasing due to population growth, urbanization, and industrialization. Numerous researchers worldwide are striving to create precise forecasting models for predicting energy consumption to manage supply and demand effectively. In this research, a time-series forecasting model based on multivariate multilayered long short-term memory (LSTM) is proposed for forecasting energy consumption and tested using data obtained from commercial buildings in Melbourne, Australia: the Advanced Technologies Center, Advanced Manufacturing and Design Center, and Knox Innovation, Opportunity, and Sustainability Center buildings. This research specifically identifies the best forecasting method for subtropical conditions and evaluates its performance by comparing it with the most commonly used methods at present, including LSTM, bidirectional LSTM, and linear regression. The proposed multivariate, multilayered LSTM model was assessed by comparing mean average error (MAE), root-mean-square error (RMSE), and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) values with and without labeled time. Results indicate that the proposed model exhibits optimal performance with improved precision and accuracy. Specifically, the proposed LSTM model achieved a decrease in MAE of 30%, RMSE of 25%, and MAPE of 20% compared with the LSTM method. Moreover, it outperformed the bidirectional LSTM method with a reduction in MAE of 10%, RMSE of 20%, and MAPE of 18%. Furthermore, the proposed model surpassed linear regression with a decrease in MAE by 2%, RMSE by 7%, and MAPE by 10%.These findings highlight the significant performance increase achieved by the proposed multivariate multilayered LSTM model in energy consumption forecasting.

Heating, ventilation, and air conditioning (HVAC) systems account for 60% of the energy consumption in commercial buildings. Each year, millions of dollars are spent on electricity bills by commercial building operators. To address this energy consumption challenge, a predictive model named Bayesian optimisation Convolution Neural Network Multivariate Long Short-term Memory (BO CNN-M-LSTM) is introduced in this research. The proposed model is designed to perform load forecasting, optimizing energy usage in commercial buildings. The CNN block extracts local features, whereas the M-LSTM captures temporal dependencies. The hyperparameter fine tuning framework applied Bayesian optimization to enhance output prediction by modifying model properties with data characteristics. Moreover, to improve occupant well-being in commercial buildings, the thermal comfort adaptive model developed by de Dear and Brager was applied to ambient temperature in the preprocessing stage. As a result, across all four datasets, the BO CNN-M-LSTM consistently outperformed other models, achieving an 8% improvement in mean percentage absolute error (MAPE), 2% in normalized root mean square error (NRMSE), and 2% in R² score.This indicates the consistent performance of BO CNN-M-LSTM under varying environmental factors, highlight the model robustness and adaptability. Hence, the BO CNN-M-LSTM model is a highly effective predictive load forecasting tool for commercial building HVAC systems.

The global demand for energy has been steadily increasing due to population growth, urbanization, and industrialization. Numerous researchers worldwide are striving to create precise forecasting models for predicting energy consumption to manage supply and demand effectively. In this research, a time-series forecasting model based on multivariate multilayered long short-term memory (LSTM) is proposed for forecasting energy consumption and tested using data obtained from commercial buildings in Melbourne, Australia: the Advanced Technologies Center, Advanced Manufacturing and Design Center, and Knox Innovation, Opportunity, and Sustainability Center buildings. This research specifically identifies the best forecasting method for subtropical conditions and evaluates its performance by comparing it with the most used methods at present, including LSTM, bidirectional LSTM, and linear regression. The proposed multivariate multilayered LSTM model was assessed by comparing mean average error (MAE), root-mean-square error (RMSE), and mean absolute percentage error (MAPE) values with and without labeled time. Results indicate that the proposed model exhibits optimal performance with improved precision and accuracy. Specifically, the proposed LSTM model achieved a decrease in MAE by 30%, RMSE by 25%, and MAPE by 20% compared to the LSTM method. Moreover, it outperformed the bidirectional LSTM method with a reduction in MAE by 10%, RMSE by 20%, and MAPE by 18%. Furthermore, the proposed model surpassed linear regression with a decrease in MAE by 2%, RMSE by 7%, and MAPE by 10%. These findings highlight the significant performance increase achieved by the proposed multivariate multilayered LSTM model in energy consumption forecasting.

The digitalization of the global landscape of electricity consumption, combined with the impact of the pandemic and the implementation of lockdown measures, has required the development of a precise forecast of energy consumption to optimize the management of energy resources, particularly in pandemic contexts. To address this, this research introduces a novel forecasting model, the robust multivariate multilayered long- and short-term memory model with knowledge injection ($\mathtt{Robust}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{mv}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{M}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{LSTM}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{CI}$), to improve the accuracy of forecasting models under uncertain conditions. This innovative model extends the capabilities of $\mathtt{mv}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{M}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{LSTM}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{CI}$ by incorporating an additional branch to extract energy consumption from adversarial noise. The experiment results show that $\mathtt{Robust}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{mv}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{M}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{LSTM}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{CI}$ demonstrates substantial improvements over $\mathtt{mv}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{M}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{LSTM}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{CI}$ and other models with adversarial training: multivariate multilayered long short-term memory (adv-M-LSTM), long short-term memory (adv-LSTM), bidirectional long short-term memory (adv-Bi-LSTM), and linear regression (adv-LR). The maximum noise level from the adversarial examples is 0.005. On average, across three datasets, the proposed model improves about 24.01% in mean percentage absolute error (MPAE), 18.43% in normalized root mean square error (NRMSE), and 8.53% in $R^2$ over $\mathtt{mv}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{M}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{LSTM}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{CI}$. In addition, the proposed model outperforms “adv-” models with MPAE improvements ranging from 35.74% to 89.80% across the datasets. In terms of NRMSE, improvements range from 36.76% to 80.00%. Furthermore, $\mathtt{Robust}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{mv}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{M}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{LSTM}\mathit{\text{-}}\mathtt{CI}$ achieves remarkable improvements in the $R^2$ score, ranging from 17.35% to 119.63%. The results indicate that the proposed model enhances overall accuracy while effectively mitigating the potential reduction in accuracy often associated with adversarial training models. By incorporating adversarial noise and COVID-19 case data, the proposed model demonstrates improved accuracy and robustness in forecasting energy consumption under uncertain conditions. This enhanced predictive capability will enable energy managers and policymakers to better anticipate and respond to fluctuations in energy demand during pandemics, ensuring more resilient and efficient energy systems.

The COVID-19 pandemic and the subsequent implementation of lockdown measures have significantly impacted global electricity consumption, necessitating accurate energy consumption forecasts for optimal energy generation and distribution during a pandemic. In this paper, we propose a new forecasting model called the multivariate multilayered long short-term memory (LSTM) with COVID-19 case injection ($\mathtt{mv}-\mathtt{M}-\mathtt{LSTM}-\mathtt{CI}$) for improved energy forecast during the next occurrence of a similar pandemic. We utilized data from commercial buildings in Melbourne, Australia, during the COVID-19 pandemic to predict energy consumption and evaluate the model’s performance against commonly used methods such as LSTM, bidirectional LSTM, linear regression, support vector machine, and multilayered LSTM (M-LSTM). The proposed forecasting model was analyzed using the following metrics: mean percent absolute error (MPAE), normalized root mean square error (NRMSE), and $R^2$ score values. The model $\mathtt{mv}-\mathtt{M}-\mathtt{LSTM}-\mathtt{CI}$ demonstrated superior performance, achieving the lowest mean percentage absolute error values of 0.061, 0.093, and 0.158 for $\mathit{DatasetS}$1, $\mathit{DatasetS}$2, and $\mathit{DatasetS}$3, respectively. Our results highlight the improved precision and accuracy of the model, providing valuable information for energy management and decision making during the challenges posed by the occurrence of a pandemic like COVID-19 in the future.

This study presents a novel LSTM–CNN-based adaptive scheduling framework (LSTM-CNN–AS) designed to improve real-time energy management and extend the lifespan of lithium-ion Battery Energy Storage Systems (BESS) in rural and resource-constrained microgrids. In contrast to conventional methods that prioritize economic optimization, the proposed framework incorporates state of health (SOH) aware control and adaptive closed-loop scheduling to enhance operational reliability and battery longevity. The architecture combines Long Short-Term Memory (LSTM) and Convolutional Neural Networks (CNN) for accurate SOH estimation, with lightweight Multi-Layer Perceptron (MLP) models supporting real-time scheduling and state of charge (SOC) regulation. Operational safety is maintained by keeping SOC within 20–80% and SOH above 70%. The proposed model training and validation are conducted using two real-world datasets: the Mendeley Lithium-Ion SOH Test Dataset and the DKA Solar System Dataset from Alice Springs, both sampled at 5-min intervals. Performance is evaluated across three operational scenarios, which are 2C charging with random discharge; random charging with 3C discharge; and fully random profiles, achieving up to 44% reduction in MAE and an R²; score of 0.9767. A one-month deployment demonstrates a 30% reduction in charging time and 40% lower operational costs, confirming the framework’s effectiveness and scalability for rural microgrid applications.