The use of metacognitive prompting to support self-regulated learning is a well-established area of research in education. Despite receiving considerable attention, the precise mechanism of prompting and its effects on the learning process remain unclear, especially in the context of multimedia learning. This study employed a controlled laboratory experimental design to empirically investigate the effects of metacognitive prompting on learning outcomes, considering both text-based and multimedia learning materials. A population of 110 native Czech undergraduate students in the humanities and social sciences participated in the experiment. Contrary to expectations, metacognitive prompting was not identified as a significant predictor of learning outcomes. Post-hoc analysis indicated that the effects of metacognitive prompting depend on various differences in students and their cognitive processing, which may be further influenced by the nature of the learning material. These findings underscore the importance of considering individual differences when designing and implementing metacognitive prompts in multimedia learning, as well as for follow-up research where they should be closely inspected. Implications for practice or policy: The findings of this study emphasise the importance of individual differences among students in the domain of self-regulated learning, which should be considered when creating meta-cognitive prompts. When designing online learning materials, instructional designers should be aware that the effectiveness of metacognitive prompts may vary depending on the type of learning material. Educators can focus on providing additional support (beyond metacognitive prompts) to low-achieving students to help them develop their ability to regulate their own learning.

This paper presents the design and formative evaluation of English-as-a-foreign-language (EFL) lesson prototypes conducted within immersive virtual environments (IVEs) and reports qualitative insights derived from this Research through Design (RtD) prototype evaluation study. The research involved the development and formative evaluation of prototype lessons grounded in pedagogical expertise and contemporary principles of IVE-based education. The findings identify features, tools, and platform functionalities that were perceived by expert participants as relevant to lesson feasibility, user experience, and prototype refinement, and that informed the design of a collaborative educational IVE. Conducted within a broader research project on education in immersive virtual spaces, the study employed a role reversal methodology in which four experienced EFL educators participated as learners. Data were collected through semi-structured interviews and analyzed with attention to both the instructional design of the lessons and the operational characteristics of the IVE technology. A Research through Design (RtD) approach was used to iteratively refine the lesson prototypes. The results emphasize the need for systematic formative evaluation and practical testing of IVE-based educational tools before claims about pedagogical effectiveness can be made. Rather than providing generalizable evidence of pedagogical efficacy or policy-level recommendations, the study offers formative design insights, expert reflections, and directions for prototype refinement in EFL-oriented IVE instruction.