Current diagnostic methods for dyslexia primarily rely on traditional paper‐and‐pencil tasks. Advanced technological approaches, including eye‐tracking and artificial intelligence (AI), offer enhanced diagnostic capabilities. In this paper, we bridge the gap between scientific and diagnostic concepts by proposing a novel dyslexia detection method, called INSIGHT, which combines a visualisation phase and a neural network‐based classification phase. The first phase involves transforming eye‐tracking fixation data into 2D visualisations called Fix‐images, which clearly depict reading difficulties. The second phase utilises the ResNet18 convolutional neural network for classifying these images. The INSIGHT method was tested on 35 child participants (13 dyslexic and 22 control readers) using three text‐reading tasks, achieving a highest accuracy of 86.65%. Additionally, we cross‐tested the method on an independent dataset of Danish readers, confirming the robustness and generalizability of our approach with a notable accuracy of 86.11%. This innovative approach not only provides detailed insight into eye movement patterns when reading but also offers a robust framework for the early and accurate diagnosis of dyslexia, supporting the potential for more personalised and effective interventions.

Dyslexia is a specific learning disability characterized by difficulties in decoding words and reading, which harms the reading process. A large amount of information is delivered in a text-based form, and therefore stable reading development is crucial. For these reasons, it is necessary to focus on intensive dyslexia intervention based regularly and concerning the individual needs and deficiencies of the dyslexic reader. This paper presents a concept of a comprehensive system for dyslexia intervention based on gaze interactions with a detailed introduction of a paired reading approach. The paper includes a description of this approach, its background, and a proposal for the gaze-based implementation of the paired reading approach. The development of an intervention system based on innovative cognitive models of reading approach would lead to the targeted dyslexia intervention and subsequent development of reading skills for dyslexics whose reading literacy does not meet the standards.

The use of eye tracking in educational research has shown great potential in recent decades. There are various approaches to the usage of eye tracking technology in this area, including investigation of self-regulated learning from different types of learning environments. Nonetheless, the majority of published research studies have one tremendous limitation: using expensive remote or tower-based eye trackers to provide high-quality data in laboratory conditions. Now, new webcam eye trackers may offer an easily affordable approach allowing eye tracking measurements in the real environment, such as the investigation of learning behavior in online learning environments. The main aim of this scoping review is to explore the use of webcam eye tracking technology in the field of learning and education. We established three specific purposes: 1) to introduce educational topics being explored using webcam eye tracking, 2) to discuss the methodological aspects when exploring educational topics with webcam eye tracking, and 3) to investigate the eye tracking aspects used for the analysis. To do this, we analyzed 16 studies that used webcam eye tracking. The results of the scoping review show that 1) selected studies focus mainly on students’ behavior in online learning environments, such as engagement, lack of attention, cheating and others; 2) a wide range of studies aimed at the development of automatized detection tools; and 3) studies are mainly focused on extracting raw and event data features using them mostly for automatized detection purposes. The use of eye tracking in educational research has shown great potential in recent decades. There are various approaches to the usage of eye tracking technology in this area, including investigation of self-regulated learning from different types of learning environments. Nonetheless, the majority of published research studies have one tremendous limitation: using expensive remote or tower-based eye trackers to provide high-quality data in laboratory conditions. Now, new webcam eye trackers may offer an easily affordable approach allowing eye tracking measurements in the real environment, such as the investigation of learning behavior in online learning environments. The main aim of this scoping review is to explore the use of webcam eye tracking technology in the field of learning and education. We established three specific purposes: 1) to introduce educational topics being explored using webcam eye tracking, 2) to discuss the methodological aspects when exploring educational topics with webcam eye tracking, and 3) to investigate the eye tracking aspects used for the analysis. To do this, we analyzed 16 studies that used webcam eye tracking. The results of the scoping review show that 1) selected studies focus mainly on students’ behavior in online learning environments, such as engagement, lack of attention, cheating and others; 2) a wide range of studies aimed at the development of automatized detection tools; and 3) studies are mainly focused on extracting raw and event data features using them mostly for automatized detection purposes.

The use of metacognitive prompting to support self-regulated learning is a well-established area of research in education. Despite receiving considerable attention, the precise mechanism of prompting and its effects on the learning process remain unclear, especially in the context of multimedia learning. This study employed a controlled laboratory experimental design to empirically investigate the effects of metacognitive prompting on learning outcomes, considering both text-based and multimedia learning materials. A population of 110 native Czech undergraduate students in the humanities and social sciences participated in the experiment. Contrary to expectations, metacognitive prompting was not identified as a significant predictor of learning outcomes. Post-hoc analysis indicated that the effects of metacognitive prompting depend on various differences in students and their cognitive processing, which may be further influenced by the nature of the learning material. These findings underscore the importance of considering individual differences when designing and implementing metacognitive prompts in multimedia learning, as well as for follow-up research where they should be closely inspected. Implications for practice or policy: The findings of this study emphasise the importance of individual differences among students in the domain of self-regulated learning, which should be considered when creating meta-cognitive prompts. When designing online learning materials, instructional designers should be aware that the effectiveness of metacognitive prompts may vary depending on the type of learning material. Educators can focus on providing additional support (beyond metacognitive prompts) to low-achieving students to help them develop their ability to regulate their own learning.

This study provides a narrative review of current eye-tracking research on self-regulated learning from multimedia learning materials in higher education. The main aim of the review is to explore how eye tracking is used in self-regulated learning research when learning from multimedia materials in university students. Other specific aims were established: 1) to identify what self-regulated learning processes are explored with eye tracking while learning from multimedia materials, 2) to determine what methods are used to explore self-regulated learning processes with eye tracking, 3) to find what structures and stimuli are used in eye-tracking experiments when studying self-regulated learning processes, and 4) to investigate what eye-tracking metrics are used to study self-regulated learning processes in learning from multimedia materials. To accomplish these aims, we analyzed 11 empirical studies published between 2012 and 2021. The results show that 1) current studies focus on self-regulated learning processes, such as judgments of learning, metacognitive monitoring, meta-comprehension, and learning strategies, 2) studies are quantitative and use experimental designs, specific stimuli, and distinct structures, and 4) studies are mainly focused on the fixations, saccades, and transitions between selected areas of interest in the data analyses. The results of this narrative review can indicate new directions for future research in this field. This study provides a narrative review of current eye-tracking research on self-regulated learning from multimedia learning materials in higher education. The main aim of the review is to explore how eye tracking is used in self-regulated learning research when learning from multimedia materials in university students. Other specific aims were established: 1) to identify what self-regulated learning processes are explored with eye tracking while learning from multimedia materials, 2) to determine what methods are used to explore self-regulated learning processes with eye tracking, 3) to find what structures and stimuli are used in eye-tracking experiments when studying self-regulated learning processes, and 4) to investigate what eye-tracking metrics are used to study self-regulated learning processes in learning from multimedia materials. To accomplish these aims, we analyzed 11 empirical studies published between 2012 and 2021. The results show that 1) current studies focus on self-regulated learning processes, such as judgments of learning, metacognitive monitoring, meta-comprehension, and learning strategies, 2) studies are quantitative and use experimental designs, specific stimuli, and distinct structures, and 4) studies are mainly focused on the fixations, saccades, and transitions between selected areas of interest in the data analyses. The results of this narrative review can indicate new directions for future research in this field.

Reading strategies and cognitive styles have been the objective of many researchers. However, the relation between these two concepts remains unclear. This paper is focusing on three goals. Firstly, we verify the reliability of the eye-tracking indicators of risky and conservative reading style. Secondly, we aim to explore an additional eye-tracking pattern that may reflect the reading style on the global level. Thirdly, we explore the relationship between reading style and the holistic/analytic cognitive style. The study is based on a combination of Compound Figure Test (CFT) as a main tool for analyzing cognitive style and eye-tracking study consisting of several text stimuli related to verify reading style patterns. Results showed stability across the reading tasks, which validates for the usefulness and reliability of original Rayner’s as well as the new additional eye-tracking metrics. The stability of the eye-tracking metrics allows us to treat them as a behavioral profile in information processing that may be viewed as a stable personality trait known as reading style. However, the eye-tracking results and the CFT global preference score did not show a detectably close relation between cognitive style and reading style. In conclusion, we also discuss the possibility of applying these eye-tracking patterns to foreign language material design.