Sowing time, as an element, is important to improving the adaptation of cultivars to environmental conditions and to achieving high seed yields. The field experiment was conducted from 2018–2019 at the Experimental Station of Vytautas Magnus University Agriculture Academy. The experimental design included treatments with different sowing dates: eight sowing dates in 2018 and 10 sowing dates in 2019. The first sowing of spring rapeseed was carried out when the soil reached its physical maturity, i.e., it did not stick to agricultural implements and it crumbled well. The other sowing dates were every seven subsequent days. From 2018–2019, the rapeseed emerged as best in early May (3 and 4 May), and later sowing reduced the emergence of rapeseed. In 2018, most pods were formed on one plant when the rapeseed was sown (on 1 June), compared to other sowings, on average 2.8 times more. In 2019, most pods were formed by the latest-sown rapeseed (7 June), from 1.4 to 2.7 times more compared to previously sown crops. In 2018, the sowing time of spring rapeseed did not have a significant effect on the number of seeds in one pod. In 2019, it was found that the rapeseed formed most of the seeds in the pod at a similar time as in 2018: the sowings of 19 April and 7 June. The average number of seeds in the pod was significantly reduced by early sowing (5 April). In 2019, the highest 1000-seed weight was found at the earliest-sown crop (5 April), which was on average 18.0% higher compared to the later sowings. The 1000-seed weight of the last-sown rapeseed (7 June) was the lowest. In 2018, the yields of early-sown (20 April) spring rapeseed were the highest. Later sowing significantly reduced the yields by 20.7 to 48.2%. In 2019, the highest seed yield was obtained after sowing spring rapeseed in late April (26 April); it was significant, on average, 1.9 times higher than the yields of spring rapeseed sown from 3 May to 7 June. Meteorological conditions had a stronger effect on the field emergence and yield components of spring rapeseed than the sowing date.

Multi-cropping systems play an important role in improving the quality of soil properties. A field experiment was carried at the Experimental Station of Vytautas Magnus University Agriculture Academy (Lithuania) in 2017 to 2019. The aim of the study was to compare agrophysical and biological properties of the soil in the multi-cropping systems of sole (spring barley, spring wheat, pea, caraway), binary (spring barley–caraway, spring wheat–caraway, pea–caraway) and trinary (spring barley–caraway–white clover, spring wheat–caraway–white clover, pea–caraway–white clover) crops. In the second and the third years of caraway cultivation, when solely caraway was grown, the total nitrogen content was significantly lower than in binary and trinary crops (8.5% and 17.4%, respectively). The results indicated that the highest organic carbon content was in the third year of caraway cultivation in trinary crop when caraway was grown with peas and white clover. In the third year, the highest saccharase and urease activity was found in trinary crop where caraway was grown with spring barley and white clover. A strong positive correlation was observed between the content of saccharase and urease and the total nitrogen, organic carbon, and potassium available in the soil. The results of the study suggest that multi-cropping is important for soil conservation and the sustainability of agro-ecosystems.

Crop production is considered one of the most important agricultural areas in the world, supplying humanity with raw food materials. However, intensive farming very often has a detrimental effect on the environment. The aim of this study was to investigate and assess the efficiency of strip tillage and a sowing machine as well as a direct sowing machine in differently prepared soils in terms of yield, energy, and environmental impact. The experiments were performed with winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) grown using three different tillage techniques and two sowing machines. The results show that the inputs of diesel fuel, energy, and time are directly affected by the number and complexity of technological operations throughout the production chain. The highest inputs of diesel fuel, working time, and energy consumption were needed using conventional tillage technology with strip tillage and a sowing machine (CT–STS), amounting to 130.2 l ha⁻¹, 6.65 h ha⁻¹, and 18,349 MJ ha⁻¹, respectively. The best yields were obtained using no tillage–direct sowing technology (NT–DS), where were reached 7.54 t ha⁻¹. The lowest environmental impact was achieved in the winter wheat production system using NT–DS, where the CO₂ emissions were as high as 15%, lower than those under conventional tillage–direct sowing (CT–DS) and CT–STS. The costs of winter wheat production can be reduced by up to 23.6%. The main conclusion regarding the use of strip tillage and sowing and direct sowing machines in traditional tillage technology is that energy and environmental indicators have deteriorated compared to no tillage, but no significant difference in winter wheat yields has been identified.

The scientific aim of this article is to investigate the potential benefits of implementing a multi-cropping system, specifically focusing on the incorporation of caraway, to improve soil agrochemical and biological properties, prevent soil degradation and erosion, and ultimately enhance soil quality and health to better adapt to climate change. This study aims to provide valuable insights into the comparative analysis of various soil parameters and biological indicators to showcase the promising perspectives and importance of perennial crop production for improving soil quality and agricultural sustainability. These crops are designed to provide multiple benefits simultaneously, including improved yields, enhanced ecosystem services, and reduced environmental effects. However, an integrated assessment of their overall effects on the agroecosystem is crucial to understand their potential benefits and trade-offs. The field experiment was conducted over three consecutive vegetative seasons (2017 to 2021) at the Experimental Station of Vytautas Magnus University Agriculture Academy (VMU AA) in Kaunas district, Lithuania. The experimental site is located at 54°53′7.5″ N latitude and 23°50′18.11″ E longitude. The treatments within a replicate were multi-cropping systems of sole crops (spring barley (1), spring wheat (2), pea (3), caraway (4)), binary crops (spring barley–caraway (5), spring wheat–caraway (6), pea–caraway (7)), and trinary crops (spring barley–caraway–white clover (8), spring wheat–caraway–white clover (9), pea–caraway–white clover (10)) crops. However, an integrated assessment of their impact on the agroecosystem is needed to understand their potential benefits and processes. To determine the complex interactions between indicators, the interrelationships between indicators, and the strength of impacts, this study applied an integrated assessment approach using the comprehensive assessment index (CEI). The CEI values showed that integrating caraway (Carum carvi L.) into multi-cropping systems can have several positive effects. The effect of the binary spring barley and caraway and the trinary spring barley, caraway, and white clover crops on the agroecosystem is positively higher than that of the other comparative sole, binary, and trinary crops. Caraway, after spring wheat together with white clover, has a higher positive effect on the agroecosystem than caraway without white clover. Specifically, this study addresses key aspects, such as soil health, nutrient cycling, weed management, and overall agricultural sustainability, within the context of multi-cropping practices. By evaluating the effects of these cropping systems on soil agrochemical properties and ecosystem dynamics, the research provides valuable insights into sustainable agricultural practices that promote environmental conservation and long-term soil health.

The inclusion of undersown cover crops in crop rotations and the use of biopesticides are essential for the long-term sustainability of the agroecosystem in organic farming. We hypothesized that biopesticides and undersown cover crops (crimson (incarnate) clover (Trifolium incarnatum Broth.), hairy (winter) vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), and winter rye (Secale cereale L.)) are likely to have a positive impact on soil agrophysical and biological properties. Soil shear strength, soil aggregate–size distribution, plant root dry biomass and number and biomass of earthworms were determined at the end of the plant growing season. We concluded that the application of biopesticides and growing of undersown cover crops decreased soil shear strength and increased the percentage of macro-aggregates (0.25–10 mm) in the plough layer. In the plots with cover crops, plant root biomass was found to be significantly higher by a factor of 1.9 to 3.5, compared to the plots without cover crops. The application of biopesticides and undersown cover crops did not significantly affect the number and biomass of earthworms in the soil. The abundance of earthworms was more influenced by meteorological conditions.

Undersown cover crops are an important tool for weed control in organic farming. The hypothesis of this research was that undersown crimson (incarnate) clover (Trifolium incarnatum Broth.), hairy (winter) vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.), perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne L.), and winter rye (Secale cereale L.) in combination with bio-preparations inhibit the spread of weeds and influence the seed yield of spring oilseed rape in organic farming. The dry biomass of undersown cover crops, as well as the number and dry biomass of weeds, were determined before harvesting spring oilseed rape (Brassica napus L. spp. oleifera biennis Metzg.) (main crop) to identify the underlying influences on seed yield. We summarized that hairy vetch was distinguished by its rapid growth and by the fact that it produced an aboveground dry biomass that was significantly higher (1.9 to 12.4 times) compared with other cover crops, while crimson clover grown as a cover crop had a significantly higher aboveground dry biomass (by a factor of 3.2 to 4.9) compared with that of perennial ryegrass and winter rye. During the spring oilseed growing season, undersown cover crops did not suppress early emerging weeds that had not been controlled by inter-row loosening. During the spring growing season, weeds were best suppressed using bio-preparation-treated perennial ryegrass. The highest oilseed rape seed yield was obtained in 2020 after the application of bio-preparations in plots without any cover crops. Perennial ryegrass as a cover crop in combination with bio-preparations produced the highest reduction in oilseed rape seed yield. Further research should be directed toward determining the long-term effects of cover crops and bio-preparations on plant community formation in organic farming.