Background: Particulate matter (PM), a major component of ambient air pollution, accounts for a substantial burden of diseases and fatality worldwide. Maternal exposure to PM during pregnancy is particularly harmful to children’s health since this is a phase of rapid human growth and development.Method: In this review, we synthesize the scientific evidence on adverse health outcomes in children following prenatal exposure to the smallest toxic components, fine (PM_2.5) and ultrafine (PM_0.1) PM. We highlight the established and emerging findings from epidemiologic studies and experimental models.Results: Maternal exposure to fine and ultrafine PM directly and indirectly yields numerous adverse birth outcomes and impacts on children’s respiratory systems, immune status, brain development, and cardiometabolic health. The biological mechanisms underlying adverse effects include direct placental translocation of ultrafine particles, placental and systemic maternal oxidative stress and inflammation elicited by both fine and ultrafine PM, epigenetic changes, and potential endocrine effects that influence long-term health.Conclusion: Policies to reduce maternal exposure and health consequences in children should be a high priority. PM_2.5levels are regulated, yet it is recognized that minority and low socioeconomic status groups experience disproportionate exposures. Moreover, PM_0.1levels are not routinely measured or currently regulated. Consequently, preventive strategies that inform neighborhood/regional planning and clinical/nutritional recommendations are needed to mitigate maternal exposure and ultimately protect children’s health.

Particulate matter (PM) causes adverse developmental outcomes following prenatal exposure, but the underlying biological mechanisms remain uncertain. Here we elucidate the effects of diesel exhaust ultrafine particle (UFP) exposure during pregnancy on placental and fetal development. Time-mated C57Bl/6n mice were gestationally exposed to UFPs at a low dose (LD, 100 µg/m³) or high dose (HD, 500 µg/m³) for 6 h daily. Phenotypic effects on fetuses and placental morphology at gestational day (GD) of 18.5 were evaluated, and RNA sequencing was characterized for transcriptomic changes in placental tissue from male and female offspring. A significant decrease in average placental weights and crown to rump lengths was observed in female offspring in the LD exposure group. Gestational UFP exposure altered placental morphology in a dose- and sex-specific manner. Average female decidua areas were significantly greater in the LD and HD groups. Maternal lacunae mean areas were increased in the female LD group, whereas fetal blood vessel mean areas were significantly greater in the male LD and HD groups. RNA sequencing indicated several disturbed cellular functions related to lipid metabolism, which were most pronounced in the LD group and especially in female placental tissue. Our findings demonstrate the vulnerability of offspring exposed to UFPs during pregnancy, highlighting sex-specific effects and emphasizing the importance of mitigating PM exposure to prevent adverse health outcomes.

Exposure to ultrafine particles (UFPs, PM_0.1) during pregnancy triggers placental oxidative stress and inflammation, similar to fine PM (PM_2.5). The Nrf2 gene encodes a redox-sensitive transcription factor that is a major regulator of antioxidant and anti-inflammatory responses. Disruption of NRF2 is known to substantially enhance PM_2.5-driven oxidant and inflammatory responses; however, specific responses to UFP exposure, especially during critical windows of susceptibility such as pregnancy, are not fully characterized; To investigate the role of NRF2 in regulating maternal antioxidant defenses and placental responses to UFP exposure, wildtype (WT) and Nrf2^−/− pregnant mice were exposed to either low dose (LD, 100 µg/m³) or high dose (HD, 500 µg/m³) UFP mixture or filtered air (FA, control) throughout gestation; Nrf2^−/− HD-exposed female offspring exhibited significantly reduced fetal and placental weights. Placental morphology changes appeared most pronounced in Nrf2^−/− LD-exposed offspring of both sexes. Glutathione (GSH) redox analysis revealed significant increases in the GSH/GSSG ratio (reduced/oxidized) in WT female placental tissue exposed to HD in comparison with Nrf2^−/− HD-exposed mice. The expression of inflammatory cytokine genes (Il1β, Tnfα) was significantly increased in Nrf2^−/− placentas from male and female offspring across all exposure groups. Genes related to bile acid metabolism and transport were differentially altered in Nrf2^−/− mice across sex and exposure groups. Notably, the group with the most marked phenotypic effects (Nrf2^−/− HD-exposed females) corresponded to significantly higher placental Apoa1 and Apob expression suggesting a link between placental lipid transport and NRF2 in response to high dose UFP exposure; Disruption of NRF2 exacerbates adverse developmental outcomes in response to high dose UFP exposure in female offspring. Morphological effects in placenta from male and female offspring exposed to low dose UFPs also signify the importance of NRF2 in maternal–fetal response to UFPs.

Exposure to particulate matter (PM) is associated with lower respiratory tract infections. The role of ultrafine particles (UFPs, ≤0.1 μm) in respiratory disease is not fully elucidated, especially in models of immunologically immature populations. To characterize the effects of maternal UFP exposure on neonatal infection, we exposed time-mated C57Bl/6n mice to filtered air or UFPs at a low dose (LD, ∼55 μg/m³) and high dose (HD, ∼275 μg/m³) throughout gestation. At 5 days of age, offspring were infected with a respiratory syncytial virus (RSV) strain known to mimic infant infection or sham control. Offspring body weights were significantly reduced in response to infection in the LD RSV group, particularly females. Pulmonary gene expression analysis demonstrated significantly increased levels of oxidative stress- and inflammation-related genes in HD-exposed male offspring in sham and RSV-infected groups. In males, the highest grade of inflammation was observed in the HD RSV group, whereas in females, the LD RSV group showed the most marked inflammation. Overall, findings highlight neonatal responses are dependent on offspring sex and maternal UFP dose. Importantly, infant RSV pathology may be enhanced following even low dose UFP exposure signifying the importance of preventing maternal exposure.