Cement production contributes significantly to anthropogenic greenhouse gas emissions (GHG), a major contributor to global carbon emissions. The environmental impacts of cement production have grown in recent years and it is urgent to reduce its carbon footprint. Systems dynamics (SD) is a simulation method used to understand the nonlinear behavior of complex systems over time. It is commonly used in various sectors to predict emissions and conduct policy experiments. Due to the poor implementation of carbon mitigation strategies within the cement industry, enhancing policymaking by employing more advanced decision-support tools is necessary. This paper reviews previous studies that use the SD approach to assess and compare different mitigation strategies proposed and implemented to reduce carbon emissions in the cement industry. These strategies encompass technological advancements and process improvements, including using alternative fuels and raw materials (adopting low-carbon cementitious materials), energy efficiency improvements, carbon capture and storage and waste heat recovery. The review examines the papers' scope, model descriptions, validation method and mitigation methods highlighted in each study, providing valuable insights for decision makers in the cement industry. Furthermore, the paper discusses the limitations and gaps related to SD modeling, highlighting important factors such as stakeholder engagement in designing effective carbon mitigation strategies. The reviewed studies constantly emphasized technical strategies for mitigating carbon emissions from the cement industry, as stated by the International Energy Agency (IEA) classification. Innovative and emerging technologies, such as WHR, depends on adequate funding, motivation and research and development. However, they frequently neglected to address the barriers hindering their implementation or provide detailed policy measures to overcome them using SD. Additional research is required to assess the practicality and costs of implementing these strategies. Graphical abstract Navigating the way to sustainability in the cement industry: Exploring mitigation strategies through systems dynamics model

The cement industry confronts significant challenges in raw materials, energy demands, and CO₂ emissions reduction, which are global and local environmental concerns. Life cycle assessment (LCA) has been used in many studies to assess the environmental impact of cement production and investigate ways to improve environmental performance. This study aims to analyse the environmental impact of Portland cement (CEM I) on the South African cement industry using the life cycle impact assessment (LCIA), based on the Recipe 2016 v 1.04 midpoint method. The study was conducted using data modeled after the South African cement plant, considered a cradle-to-gate system boundary, starting from the extraction of the raw material to the cement production process that produces cement as the main product. The data were obtained from the Ecoinvent database v3.7.1, integrated with SimaPro 9.1.1. software, used to assess the impact categories. For simplicity, the study merged the entire production process into five processes, i.e., raw materials usage, fuel consumption, clinker production, transportation and electricity. The impact categories of the five production stages were assessed using the LCA methodology. The impact categories investigated were classified into three categories: atmospheric, resource depletion and toxicity categories. According to the results, clinker production and electricity usage stages contribute the most to atmospheric impact (global warming, which causes climatic change due to high CO₂ emissions), followed by raw materials and fuel consumption, contributing to the toxicity and resource depletion impact category. These stages contribute more than 76% of CO₂ eq. and 93% of CFC-11 eq. In the midpoint method, CO₂ is the most significant pollutant released. Therefore, replacing fossil fuels with alternative fuels can reduce fossil fuel use and the atmospheric impact of cement kilns.

The cement industry accounts for approximately 7–8% of global CO₂ emissions, primarily due to energy-intensive clinker production and limestone calcination. With cement demand continuing to rise, particularly in emerging economies, decarbonization has become an urgent global challenge. The objective of this study is to systematically map and synthesize existing evidence on technological pathways, policy measures, and economic barriers to four core decarbonization strategies: clinker substitution, energy efficiency, alternative fuels, as well as carbon capture, utilization, and storage (CCUS) in the cement sector, with the goal of identifying practical strategies that can align industry practice with long-term climate goals. A scoping review methodology was adopted, drawing on peer-reviewed journal articles, technical reports, and policy documents to ensure a comprehensive perspective. The results demonstrate that each mitigation pathway is technically feasible but faces substantial real-world constraints. Clinker substitution delivers immediate reduction but is limited by SCM availability/quality, durability qualification, and conservative codes; LC₃ is promising where clay logistics allow. Energy-efficiency measures like waste-heat recovery and advanced controls reduce fuel use but face high capital expenditure, downtime, and diminishing returns in modern plants. Alternative fuels can reduce combustion-related emissions but face challenges of supply chains, technical integration challenges, quality, weak waste-management systems, and regulatory acceptance. CCUS, the most considerable long-term potential, addresses process CO₂ and enables deep reductions, but remains commercially unviable due to current economics, high costs, limited policy support, lack of large-scale deployment, and access to transport and storage. Cross-cutting economic challenges, regulatory gaps, skill shortages, and social resistance including NIMBYism further slow adoption, particularly in low-income regions. This study concludes that a single pathway is insufficient. An integrated portfolio supported by modernized standards, targeted policy incentives, expanded access to SCMs and waste fuels, scaled CCUS investment, and international collaboration is essential to bridge the gap between climate ambition and industrial implementation. Key recommendations include modernizing cement standards to support higher clinker replacement, providing incentives for energy-efficient upgrades, scaling CCUS through joint investment and carbon pricing and expanding access to biomass and waste-derived fuels.

Cement has long been recognized as an energy- and emission-intensive construction material. Cement production has recently experienced significant growth despite its high energy consumption, resource usage, and carbon emissions. This study aims to assess and compare the life cycle assessment (LCA) of traditional Portland cement (CEM I) to those of three blended cement types (CEM II/B-L, CEM II/B-V, and CEM III/A), which assume mature technologies for reducing carbon emissions in South Africa, using LCA in compliance with ISO/TS 14071 and 14072. As its scope, the study employs the “cradle to gate” method, which considers the raw materials, fuel usage, electricity, transportation, and clinkering stages, using 1 kg of cement as the functional unit. The LCA analyses were performed using SimaPro 9.1.1.1 software developed by PRé Consultants, Amersfoort, Netherlands and impact assessments were conducted using the ReCiPe 2016 v1.04 midpoint method in order to compare all 18 impact categories of 1 kg of cement for each cement type. The assessment results show reductions in all impact categories, ranging from 7% in ozone depletion and ionizing radiation (CEM II/B-L) to a 41% reduction in mineral resource scarcity (CEM III/A). The impacts of global warming were reduced by 14% in the case of CEM II/B-L, 29% in the case of CEM II/B-V and 35% in the case of CEM III/A. The clinkering process was identified as the primary cause of atmospheric impacts, while resource depletion impacts were attributed to raw materials, fuels, and electricity processes, and toxicity impacts were primarily caused by raw materials. Alternative materials, like fly ash and ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBFS), can significantly help to reduce environmental impacts and resource consumption in the cement industry.

Cement is one of the most produced materials globally. Population growth and urbanization cause an increased demand for the cement needed for expanding infrastructures. As a result of this circumstance, the cement industry must find the optimum compromise between increasing cement production and reducing the negative environmental impact of that production. Since cement production uses a lot of energy, resources and raw materials, it is essential to assess its environmental impact and determine methods for the sector to move forward in sustainable ways. This paper uses an integrated life cycle assessment (LCA) and a system dynamics (SDs) model to predict the long-term environmental impact and future dynamics of cement production in South Africa. The first step used the LCA midpoint method to investigate the environmental impact of 1 kg of Portland cement produced in South Africa. In the cement production process, carbon dioxide (CO₂), nitrogen oxides (NO_x), sulphur dioxide (SO₂), methane (CH₄) and particulate matter (PM) were the major gases emitted. Therefore, the LCA concentrated on the impact of these pollutants on global warming potential (GWP), ozone formation, human health, fine particulate matter formation and terrestrial acidification. The system dynamics model is used to predict the dynamics of cement production in South Africa. The LCA translates its results into input variables into a system dynamics model to predict the long-term environmental impact of cement production in South Africa. From our projections, the pollutant outputs of cement production in South Africa will each approximately double by the year 2040 with the associated long-term impact of an increase in global warming. These results are an important guide for South Africa’s future cement production and environmental impact because it is essential that regulations for cement production are maintained to achieve long-term environmental impact goals. The proposed LCA–SD model methodology used here enables us to predict the future dynamics of cement production and its long-term environmental impact, which is the primary research objective. Using these results, a number of policy changes are suggested for reducing emissions, such as introducing more eco-blended cement productions, carbon budgets and carbon tax.