The present study investigates the aggregate suitability and geochemical characteristics of limestone (LS) from the Samana Suk Formation, Pakistan, for the construction industry. With the advent of CPEC, the demand for construction materials has seen a manifold increase. The Sheikh Budin Hills and Trans Indus Ranges comprise huge deposits of limestone and provide great potential for source rocks for construction materials in the region. In the Upper Indus Basin of Pakistan, the Samana Suk Formation is acknowledged as the most significant carbonate deposits of Mesozoic strata. The results of aggregate parameters reveal that specific gravity (SG = 2.6); water absorption (WA = 0.47%); bulk density (BD = 1.58 g/cm³); flakiness index (FI = 16.8%); elongation index (EI = 16.39%); soundness (S = 1.6%); aggregate impact value (AIV = 14%); Los Angeles Abrasion value (LAAV = 23.51%); clay lumps (CL = 0.35%); uniaxial compressive strength (UCS = 86.7 MPa); point load test (PLT = 5.18 MPa); ultrasonic pulse velocity (UPV = 5290 m/s); and Schmidt hammer rebound test (SHRT = 49 N) are in accordance with the ASTM, ISRM, and BSI. Petrographically, the LS is dominantly composed of ooids, peloids, bioclasts, and calcite mineral (CaCO₃) with a trace concentration of dolomite [(Ca,Mg)CO₃]. The mineralogical and geochemical study (n = 18) revealed that the LS is dominantly composed of calcite (95.81%); on average, it is composed of 52.08 wt.% CaO; 1.13 wt.% SiO₂; 0.66 wt.% MgO; 0.80 wt.% Al₂O₃; and 0.76 wt.% Fe₂O₃, and loss on ignition (LOI) was recorded as 42.13 wt.%. On the other hand, P₂O₅, TiO₂, MnO, K₂O and Na₂O were found in trace amounts. The regression analysis demonstrated that the empirical correlation equation for estimating uniaxial compressive strength with ultrasonic pulse velocity is more reliable than the Schmidt hammer rebound test and point load test. Consequently, the feasibility of using LS of the Samana Suk Formation as an aggregate for construction materials and cement manufacturing is recommended based on the testing results of mechanical, physical, and geochemical properties.

This study examines the mineralogy, texture, and weathering grades of intrusive igneous rocks from northern Pakistan, as well as their impacts on physical and strength properties. In comparison to felsic rocks, mafic and intermediate rocks have lower cumulative proportions of quartz, feldspar, and plagioclase, as well as higher specific gravity, strength (i.e., UCS and R-value), and UPV values. Similarly, samples with anhedral grain shapes, irregular boundaries, and fine to medium grain sizes (UD, ANS, and CGN) exhibited greater strength values, with compressive strengths of 121, 118, and 91 MPa and tensile strengths of 11, 9, and 12 MPa, respectively. The physical and strength properties of the investigated samples corresponded well with the weathering grades assigned to them, such as fresh (WG-I), slightly weathered (WG-II), and highly weathered (WG-III). That is, as the grade increased from WG-I to WG-III, the porosity and water absorption increased (0.28% and 0.72%, respectively), whereas the specific gravity, compressive strength, and tensile strength decreased (2.04, 20, and 2.5 MPa, respectively, for CGA). Although the presence of quartz impacts rock strength, no significant association was found between the strength and the maximum and mean grain sizes of other minerals.

Nondestructive tests, commonly employed in rock mechanics, estimate mechanical parameters without affecting the rocks in situ properties. This study evaluates non-destructive tests (ultrasonic pulse velocity and Schmidt hammer) for forecasting the strength and physical properties of commonly used rocks. Weathering grades and moisture content are provided as variables that produce variances in both non-destructive tests. The coefficient of determination (R²) and subsequent empirical equations for the best-fit trend line are calculated using a simple regression method. The ultrasonic pulse velocity is found to be more efficient in estimating most of the physical properties (specific gravity, porosity, water absorption, and dry density) of granite, marble, and sandstone, with high correlation coefficients. Whereas the Schmidt hammer is found to be more reproducible in determining the strength (compressive and tensile) of granite, marble, and sandstone. The student’s t-test proved the sensitivity and correctness of the acquired equations from the suggested correlations, and agreement was established between measured and estimated plots of strength and physical properties. Although the student’s t-test confirms that the performance of all empirical models established in this study are significant, any non-destructive test with a low R² value should be used with caution when estimating the studied properties.

Shear modulus (SM) and damping ratio (DR) are significant in seismic design and the performance of geotechnical systems. The evaluation of soil reactions to dynamic loads, such as earthquakes, blasts, train, and traffic vibrations, necessitates the estimation of dynamic SM and DR. The aim of this research is to determine the cyclic parameters of unsaturated soils in and around Peshawar, and how these properties depend upon the varied confining pressures and shear strains. Undisturbed samples were collected using Shelby tubes from five boreholes at different locations along Jamrud Road, Peshawar. The index properties (grain size distribution, plasticity index, and specific gravity) and dynamic properties of these samples were determined. Three samples of 100 mm in height and 50 mm in diameter were obtained from each Shelby tube. After preparing and mounting the sample in the triaxial cell, the sample is first saturated by increasing the cell and back pressures in increments of 50 kPa until the value of Skempton’s pore pressure parameter (B) reaches ≥ 0.96. Samples were consolidated at confining pressures of 150, 200, and 300 kPa, then subjected to cyclic shear strains of 0.2, 1, 2, 2.5, and 5%. Shear stress–strain hysteresis loops were plotted, and the values of SM and DR were calculated for each cycle. Generally, at shear strains of 0.2 and 1%, the slope of the loops is steep, and gradually becomes gentler at higher strains of 2, 2.5, and 5%. It is found that, with an increasing number of cycles, the SM and DR decrease. The SM decreases with increasing shear strain, whereas the DR increases at shear strains of 0.2–1%, then decreases for strains of 2, 2.5, and 5%. The confining pressure has more influence at a shear strain of 0.2–1%, while little effect has been observed at a shear strain of 2.2–5%. The values of SM are higher at higher confining pressures at a given shear strain. The results show higher stress values during the initial cycles because of the greater effective stress that developed in response to shear strain while, with an increase in the number of cycles, the pore water pressure gradually increases, thereby reducing the effective stress and weakening the bonds between soil particles. In dynamics, when the confining pressure increases, particles are closer to contact, so the travel paths of waves increase. The energy loss will increase, so DR will decrease.

Long tunnels with significant overburden, changeable geological conditions, a steep gradient, water infiltration, and heavy traffic flow are susceptible to environmental concerns during both construction and operation. The availability of fresh air and visibility is the most important necessity in excavation for tunnel workers inside the tunnel during the construction phase, as well as those crossing the tunnel during operation. Lowari Tunnel’s tunnel air pollutants were researched. Carbon monoxide (CO), carbon dioxide (CO₂), oxygen (O₂), hydrogen sulfide (H₂S), sulfur dioxide (SO₂), nitrogen oxide (NO), ammonia (NH₃), nitrogen dioxide (NO₂), PM₁, PM_2.5, PM₁₀, air velocity, dust morphological and particle size distribution analysis are among the parameters under consideration. The findings provide evidence for the development of tunnel air quality.

Especially in recent years, the study of landslide phenomena is considered as very important because of the effects of climate change. The aim of this paper is to examine the stability of the slope located in Miacher Nagar village along the Hunza River (HR), using the Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM). The Miacher slope rises to a height of 900 m from the foot of the Hunza River and has a base angle of 50 degrees. Meta-sediments and quaternary recent glaciated deposits make up the majority of the slope’s composition. The slope movement of Miacher was first triggered in 1995, and was further triggered in 2010 and 2013. The slope was geologically, geomorphologically, geotechnically and geochemically investigated as well as modeled by Slope/w to determine the safety factor. Soil samples were analyzed for their geotechnical, geological and geomorphological properties. The Limit Equilibrium Method (LEM) was employed in this study to analyze the Factor of Safety (FOS) of the slope, based on assumptions of the Morgenstern and Price, Ordinary, Janbu and Bishop Methods, using the Slope/w software. Various factors, including pore water pressure, unit weight, cohesion, angle of internal friction and overburden, were examined by analyzing different scenarios. The findings showed that an increase in cohesion and angle of internal friction resulted in an increase in FOS, whereas an increase in unit weight and overburden caused a decrease in FOS. The influence of pore water pressure was positive to a certain extent, but a further increase led to a significant reduction in FOS. The results showed that the Miacher slope is currently stable, as all FOS values were greater than one, based on the existing strength parameters and simulated results obtained using Slope/w.