The characteristics of bioliquid produced through the hydrothermal carbonization (HTC) of wood wastes and the effects of recirculation on hydrochar production were analyzed. The organic acids and total organic carbon of bioliquid increased with progressive recirculation, whereas intermediate byproducts decreased. Hydrochar production by bioliquid recirculation increased mass yield, carbon content, caloric value, and energy yield of the former, while improving its quality as a solid refuse fuel. We concluded that bioliquid recirculation promoted HTC, as demonstrated by Fourier-transform infrared spectroscopy. Furthermore, contrary to predictions, a relatively constant quantity of bioliquid was generated in each step, indicating that its continuous reuse is feasible. Therefore, bioliquid recirculation can improve hydrochar production while simultaneously mitigating the environmental impact of wastewater generation. This method should be considered an important strategy toward the implementation of carbon-neutrality goals.

This paper aims not only to examine the gendered nature of the South Korean welfare state but also to investigate the ways in which social citizenship is bestowed upon women. Since the economic crisis occurred in 1997, South Korea has reinforced the gendered welfare state by granting social citizenship rights as attached to labor market status. Such social policy largely neglects the particular interests and needs of women and hinders the growth of their social citizenship. The paper therefore argues that for the development of full citizenship rights for women, caring work that is performed mostly by women in the private sphere should be recognized as an obligation as well as a right that constitutes citizenship.