This study investigated cloud microphysical processes, and the upward and downward movement of precipitating particles with the Weather Research and Forecasting model during Typhoon Fitow (2013). The Purdue‐Lin single‐moment scheme and the Milbrandt‐Yau and National Severe Storms Laboratory (NSSL) double‐moment microphysics schemes were utilized. The area‐mean rainfall simulated by the three schemes shared similar magnitudes and variations. The area‐mean rain rates were insensitive to microphysics schemes, as they were mainly determined by large‐scale water vapor convergence. However, the local rainfall intensity was sensitive to the schemes and graupel and hail parameterizations. This indicates great impacts of microphysics and terminal velocities of graupel/hail on the local rainfall intensity. Upward‐moving graupel had a stronger net source compared to the downward‐moving graupel over the spiral rainband in the Milbrandt‐Yau simulation due to the low terminal velocity; whereas the net source was much weaker for upward‐moving graupel than for downward‐moving graupel over the eyewall in the NSSL simulation due to the large terminal velocity. Decreasing the terminal velocities of graupel and hail (if hail exists) in the mid and lower troposphere significantly reduced the maximum local rainfall intensity via increasing the sources of upward‐moving graupel. This is because the upward‐moving graupel is prone to remaining in the clouds being advected out of the updraft region instead of directly converting to raindrops as the sinks of graupel. The microphysics and the terminal velocities were together responsible for the local rainfall intensity.

Background: A close connection between a protozoan parasite and the balance of the other gut microbes of the host has been demonstrated. The calves may be naturally co-infected with many parasites, and the co-effects of parasites on other intestinal microbes of calves remain unclear. This study aims to preliminarily reveal the relationship between intestinal parasites and other intestinal microbes in calves. Methods: Fecal samples were collected from four calves with bloody diarrhea, four calves with watery diarrhea, and seven normal calves, and the microbial flora of the samples were analyzed by whole-genome sequencing. Protozoal parasites were detected in the metagenome sequences and identified using polymerase chain reaction (PCR). Results: Cryptosporidium, Eimeria, Giardia, Blastocystis, and Entamoeba were detected by metagenomic analysis, and the identified species were Giardia duodenalis assemblage E, Cryptosporidium bovis, Cryptosporidium ryanae, Eimeria bovis, Eimeria subspherica, Entamoeba bovis, and Blastocystis ST2 and ST10. Metagenomic analysis showed that the intestinal microbes of calves with diarrhea were disordered, especially in calves with bloody diarrhea. Furthermore, different parasites show distinct relationships with the intestinal microecology. Cryptosporidium, Eimeria, and Giardia were negatively correlated with various intestinal bacteria but positively correlated with some fungi. However, Blastocystis and Entamoeba were positively associated with other gut microbes. Twenty-seven biomarkers not only were significantly enriched in bloody diarrhea, watery diarrhea, and normal calves but were also associated with Eimeria, Cryptosporidium, and Giardia. Only Eimeria showed a distinct relationship with seven genera of bacteria, which were significantly enriched in the healthy calves. All 18 genera of fungi were positively correlated with Cryptosporidium, Eimeria, and Giardia, which were also significantly enriched in calves with bloody diarrhea. Functional genes related to parasites and diseases were found mainly in fungi. Conclusions: This study revealed the relationship between intestinal protozoan parasites and the other calf gut microbiome. Different intestinal protozoan parasites have diametrically opposite effects on other gut microecology, which not only affects bacteria in the gut, but also is significantly related to fungi and archaea. Graphical

In this study, the three‐dimensional Weather Research and Forecasting model is used to conduct sensitivity experiments of Typhoon Soudelor in 2015 to examine rainfall responses to radiative effects of cloud species. Time and model domain mean analysis shows that the radiative effects of cloud ice and snow on rainfall are significantly stronger than those of cloud water and raindrops. The peak of snow appears in the upper troposphere (9 km). The inclusion of radiative effects of snow enhances radiative cooling in the upper troposphere and suppresses radiative cooling in midtroposphere and lower troposphere. The enhanced radiative cooling in the upper troposphere and the suppressed in midmidtroposphere and lower troposphere reduce stability in the troposphere and thus enhance vertical mass divergence and associated divergence of heat flux. The increases in net condensation and rainfall correspond to the increase in release of latent heat associated with the enhancement in divergence of heat flux. The maximum of cloud ice occurs around the tropopause (11 km). The inclusion of radiative effects of cloud ice weakens radiative cooling in the upper troposphere, while it enhances radiative cooling in the lower stratosphere. The weakened radiative cooling in the upper troposphere increases stability in the troposphere and thus reduces vertical mass divergence and associated divergence of heat flux. The reductions in net condensation and rainfall correspond to the decrease in release of latent heat associated with the suppression in divergence of heat flux.

Two-dimensional (2D) and three-dimensional (3D) cloud-resolving model (CRM) results from the Tropical Rainfall Measuring Mission Kwajalein Experiment (KWAJEX) were applied to analyze the diurnal cycle of cloud development in the tropics. Cloud development is intimately associated with the growth of secondary circulation, which can be analyzed in the budget of perturbation kinetic energy (PKE). The ice and liquid water path (IWP+LWP) is a fundamental parameter for estimating clouds, with the analyzed results suggesting that (1) the ice and liquid water path (IWP+LWP) and PKE values attained in convective regions were higher during the nighttime than during the daytime and that the maxima of IWP+LWP and PKE occurred at midnight in the lower troposphere in the 3D model run, and that (2) the IWP+LWP and PKE values in stratiform regions were much higher in the afternoon than in the morning, while the maxima of IWP+LWP and PKE occurred in the afternoon in the middle troposphere in the 2D model run. Further analysis demonstrated that both the high IWP+LWP and PKE values in the lower troposphere at midnight were mainly associated with the warm–humid lower troposphere in convective regions. However, those in the middle troposphere in the afternoon were primarily linked to the dry–cold upper troposphere and moist–warm lower troposphere in stratiform regions. The results further revealed that (1) both IWP+LWP and PKE exhibited shorter time scales in the 2D model runs than in the 3D model runs and that (2) the maximum IWP+LWP values occurred in the afternoon in the 2D model runs and at midnight in the 3D model runs.