The southwestern regions of the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA) are geographically and agriculturally diverse. Over millennia, crop production in these regions has evolved to use renewable water resources sustainably. This study analysed environmental and crop production data for 58 governorates in KSA’s four southwestern regions: Al Baha, Aseer, Jazan and Makkah. The biplot analysis generated six clusters of cropping systems: sorghum, cereals, dates, watermelon, vegetables and fruits, and mixed. The main biophysical factors shaping these systems are topography, altitude, rainfall, air temperature and soils. Sorghum, grown on more than half of the cultivated land, dominates the two main systems. Fruits (subtropical and temperate) and open field vegetables are important elements in most systems. The main challenge is combining a moderate use of water with greater crop diversity. Cereals consume relatively little water, but their dominance within the systems reduces overall diversity. Another important issue is the low-input technologies used to cultivate sorghum and other cereals. Landraces or older varieties are planted and little, if any, fertilizers and pesticides are applied. The introduction of sustainable intensification packages is needed, which can begin with making improved varieties accessible to farmers, promoting conservation agriculture, and integrated pest management practices.

Small ruminant production is vital for rural livelihoods and food security in Saudi Arabia but faces persistent constraints, including high feed costs, limited veterinary access, low reproductive efficiency, and weak extension services. To address these gaps, a Farm Service Delivery Model (FSDM) was piloted, which involved embedding trained livestock technicians into communities to deliver integrated on-farm services. This study evaluated the impact of the FSDM on 47 farms across three regions over 6–12 months. The key results showed significant improvements: flock size increased by 28%, the lambing rate per ewe doubled from 0.39 to 0.80, twin births tripled, mortality declined from 23.8% to 8.0%, and milk production more than doubled. Economic analysis revealed a benefit–cost ratio of 3.02, indicating high return on investment. Scaling the FSDM nationally could generate up to USD 4.8 billion in added meat and milk value over five years while reducing meat imports by 48%. The model aligns with Saudi Vision 2030 and offers a scalable and sustainable pathway to enhance productivity, resilience, and rural income. Policy recommendations include institutional integration, digital innovation, blended financing, and strengthened breeding programs.

Saudi highland Arabica coffee has been cultivated for centuries on mountain terraces across Jazan, Asir, and Al-Baha. It commands premium prices (SAR 100–200 per kilogram) in one of the world’s fastest-growing coffee markets, while its UNESCO recognition as an Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity further strengthens its market position. Yet, despite these favourable conditions, many smallholder farmers remain unable to cover their production costs. Drawing on a stratified survey of 347 farms, a purposive cost-structure dataset of 19 farms, and qualitative field observations, this study examines the structural constraints that keep the sector in a low-viability equilibrium. The analysis shows that labour and water account for 72% of variable production costs, median yield is only 0.25 kg per productive tree compared with a biological potential of 4.0 kg, and 42% of farmers report no commercial sales, relying instead on household consumption and social gifting. Government subsidies keep about 40% of farms profitable, but the employment-based eligibility criterion excludes many younger growers needed for the sector’s long-term sustainability. The study proposes a practical reform package centred on rural infrastructure, cooperative extension and shared labour, performance-based subsidies, and contract farming to transform highland coffee into a viable specialty commodity aligned with Saudi Vision 2030.

Saudi Arabia’s Arabica coffee is produced almost entirely by smallholder farmers. Although the local production meets only a small share of national consumption, the sector has expanded substantially in recent years under national development initiatives and strategic investment. This study diagnoses the smallholder value chain in Jazan, Asir and Al Baha through a cross-sectional survey of 347 farms in 14 governorates (May–November 2023). Mean green-bean yield was 0.37 kg per tree (median 0.25), which is within the global smallholder Arabica range, and the top 6.5% of the farms exceeded 1 kg per tree. Water scarcity was the leading production constraint (84.9% of respondents). This prompted a separate, exploratory irrigation survey of 57 Jazan farms (January 2024), which found true drip irrigation to be about 50% more water-productive than basin or stripped-emitter systems, a finding that would need confirmation through controlled trials. Although membership is self-selected and unmeasured confounding cannot be excluded, farmers who belonged to a producer organisation consistently performed better across the value chain. Their yields were higher (0.40 versus 0.23 kg per tree, p = 0.003), and this advantage held after adjustment for farm and farmer characteristics (+78%, 95% CI + 33 to +137). In addition, 24% of members undertook on-farm roasting against 3.9% of non-members. These findings point to wider producer-organisation coverage, more efficient irrigation and improved post-harvest handling as priority areas for intervention and future evaluation.