West Nile virus (WNV) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus in the Japanese encephalitis antigenic group. It was first isolated in 1937 from a febrile woman in Omogo in the West Nile district of Uganda [ 1 x 1 Hubalek, Z and Halouzka, J. West Nile fever—a reemerging mosquito‐borne viral disease in Europe. Emerg Infect Dis. 1999; 5: 643–650 Crossref | PubMed | Google Scholar See all References 1 ]. WNV has a natural transmission cycle in Culex spp. mosquitoes and wild and captive birds [ 2 x 2 Rossi, SL, Ross, TM, and Evans, JD. West Nile virus. Clin Lab Med. 2010; 30: 47–65 Abstract | Full Text | Full Text PDF | PubMed | Scopus (80) | Google Scholar See all References 2 ]. In contrast, humans and horses are incidental dead-end hosts [ 3 x 3 Kramer, LD, Li, J, and Shi, PY. West Nile virus. Lancet Neurol. 2007; 6: 171–181 Abstract | Full Text | Full Text PDF | PubMed | Scopus (185) | Google Scholar See all References 3 ]. The enzootic/epizootic cycle is strictly linked to the period of activity of the arthropod vectors, which, in Europe, results in a season of WNV activity that, depending on the different latitude, ranges from mid-June to mid-November [ 4 x 4 Angelini, P, Tamba, M, Finarelli, AC et al. West Nile virus circulation in Emilia‐Romagna, Italy: the integrated surveillance system 2009. Euro Surveill. 2010; 15: 19547 PubMed | Google Scholar See all References , 5 x 5 Reiter, P. West Nile virus in Europe: understanding the present to gauge the future. Euro Surveill. 2010; 15: 19508 PubMed | Google Scholar See all References ]. Since its first recognition in Uganda, the virus has gradually dispersed, via migratory birds, out of Africa to the more southerly regions of Europe, Asia, and Australasia [ 2 x 2 Rossi, SL, Ross, TM, and Evans, JD. West Nile virus. Clin Lab Med. 2010; 30: 47–65 Abstract | Full Text | Full Text PDF | PubMed | Scopus (80) | Google Scholar See all References 2 ]. This review highlights some of the most relevant aspects of WNV human infections in Europe.

West Nile virus, genus Flavivirus, is transmitted between birds and occasionally other animals by ornithophilic mosquitoes. This virus also infects humans causing asymptomatic infections in about 85% of cases and <1% of clinical cases progress to severe neuroinvasive disease. The virus also presents a threat since most infections remain unapparent. However, the virus contained in blood and organs from asymptomatically infected donors can be transmitted to recipients of these infectious tissues. This paper reviews the presently available methods to achieve the laboratory diagnosis of West Nile virus infections in humans, discussing the most prominent advantages and disadvantages of each in light of the results obtained during four different External Quality Assessment studies carried out by the European Network for ‘Imported’ Viral Diseases (ENIVD).

Purpose The purpose of this study was to test the ability of DAC®, a fast resorbable, antibacterial-loaded hydrogel coating, to prevent acute bacterial colonization in an in vivo model of an intra-operatively highly contaminated implant. Methods A histocompatibility study was performed in 10 adult New Zealand rabbits. Then, methicillin-resistant Staph. aureus were inoculated in the femur of 30 adult New Zealand rabbits at the time of intra-medullary nailing; vancomycin-loaded DAC® coated nails were compared to controls regarding local and systemic infection development. Results Histocompatibility study showed no detrimental effect of DAC® hydrogel on bone tissue after 12 weeks from implant. After seven days from implant, none of the rabbits receiving vancomycin-loaded DAC® nail showed positive blood cultures, compared to all the controls; vancomycin-loaded DAC® coating was associated with local bacterial load reduction ranging from 72 to 99 %, compared to controls. Conclusions Vancomycin-loaded DAC® coating is able to significantly reduce bacterial colonization in an animal model of an intra-operatively highly contaminated implant, without local or general side effect.

During an influenza A(H7N7) virus outbreak among poultry in Italy during August–September 2013, infection with a highly pathogenic A(H7N7) avian influenza virus was diagnosed for 3 poultry workers with conjunctivitis. Genetic analyses revealed that the viruses from the humans were closely related to those from chickens on affected farms.

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