Forest ecosystems in the mid-latitudes of the Northern Hemisphere are significantly affected by frequent extreme weather events. How different forest ecosystems respond to these changes is a major challenge. This study aims to assess differences in the response of daily net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CO₂ and latent heat flux (LE) between different boreal and temperate ecosystems and the atmosphere to extreme weather events (e.g., anomalous temperature and precipitation). In order to achieve the main objective of our study, we used available reanalysis data and existing information on turbulent atmospheric fluxes and meteorological parameters from the global and regional FLUXNET databases. The analysis of NEE and LE responses to high/low temperature and precipitation revealed a large diversity of flux responses in temperate and boreal forests, mainly related to forest type, geographic location, regional climate conditions, and plant species composition. During the warm and cold seasons, the extremely high temperatures usually lead to increased CO₂ release in all forest types, with the largest response in coniferous forests. The decreasing air temperatures that occur during the warm season mostly lead to higher CO₂ uptake, indicating more favorable conditions for photosynthesis at relatively low summer temperatures. The extremely low temperatures in the cold season are not accompanied by significant NEE anomalies. The response of LE to temperature variations does not change significantly throughout the year, with higher temperatures leading to LE increases and lower temperatures leading to LE reductions. The immediate response to heavy precipitation is an increase in CO₂ release and a decrease in evaporation. The cumulative effect of heavy precipitations is opposite to the immediate effect in the warm season and results in increased CO₂ uptake due to intensified photosynthesis in living plants under sufficient soil moisture conditions.

We present a modeling tool capable of computing carbon dioxide (CO₂) fluxes over a non-uniform boreal peatland. The three-dimensional (3D) hydrodynamic model is based on the “one-and-a-half” closure scheme of the system of the Reynolds-Averaged Navier–Stokes and continuity equations. Despite simplifications used in the turbulence description, the model allowed obtaining the spatial steady-state distribution of the averaged wind velocities and coefficients of turbulent exchange within the atmospheric surface layer, taking into account the surface heterogeneity. The spatial pattern of CO₂ fluxes within and above a plant canopy is derived using the “diffusion–reaction–advection” equation. The model was applied to estimate the spatial heterogeneity of CO₂ fluxes over a non-uniform boreal ombrotrophic peatland, Staroselsky Moch, in the Tver region of European Russia. The modeling results showed a significant effect of vegetation heterogeneity on the spatial pattern of vertical and horizontal wind components and on vertical and horizontal CO₂ flux distributions. Maximal airflow disturbances were detected in the near-surface layer at the windward and leeward forest edges. The forest edges were also characterized by maximum rates of horizontal CO₂ fluxes. Modeled turbulent CO₂ fluxes were compared with the mid-day eddy covariance flux measurements in the southern part of the peatland. A very good agreement of modeled and measured fluxes (R² = 0.86, p < 0.05) was found. Comparisons of the vertical profiles of CO₂ fluxes over the entire peatland area and at the flux tower location showed significant differences between these fluxes, depending on the prevailing wind direction and the height above the ground.

This study explores the potential of using Unmanned Aircraft Vehicles (UAVs) as a measurement platform for estimating greenhouse gas (GHG) fluxes over complex terrain. We proposed and tested an inverse modeling approach for retrieving GHG fluxes based on two-level measurements of GHG concentrations and airflow properties over complex terrain with high spatial resolution. Our approach is based on a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model capable of determining the airflow parameters that affect the spatial distribution of GHG concentrations within the atmospheric boundary layer. The model is primarily designed to solve the forward problem of calculating the steady-state distribution of GHG concentrations and fluxes at different levels over an inhomogeneous land surface within the model domain. The inverse problem deals with determining the unknown surface GHG fluxes by minimizing the difference between measured and modeled GHG concentrations at two selected levels above the land surface. Several numerical experiments were conducted using surrogate data that mimicked UAV observations of varying accuracies and density of GHG concentration measurements to test the robustness of the approach. Our primary modeling target was a 6 km² forested area in the foothills of the Greater Caucasus Mountains in Russia, characterized by complex topography and mosaic vegetation. The numerical experiments show that the proposed inverse modeling approach can effectively solve the inverse problem, with the resulting flux distribution having the same spatial pattern as the required flux. However, the approach tends to overestimate the mean value of the required flux over the domain, with the maximum errors in flux estimation associated with areas of maximum steepness in the surface topography. The accuracy of flux estimates improves as the number of points and the accuracy of the concentration measurements increase. Therefore, the density of UAV measurements should be adjusted according to the complexity of the terrain to improve the accuracy of the modeling results.

Основные используемые на данный момент методы измерения потоков парниковых газов в полевых условиях, такие как метод экспозиционных камер и метод турбулентных пульсаций, имеют ряд методических ограничений. Это затрудняет их широкое использование на местности с неоднородной подстилающей поверхностью, особенно в горных регионах. Поэтому весьма актуальной является задача разработки новой рабочей методики для оценки потоков парниковых газов, применимой над поверхностями со сложным рельефом и неоднородной растительностью, основанной на методах дистанционного зондирования и математическом моделировании. Цель работызаключается в формулировке методики оценки потоков парниковых газов на основе данных измерений концентрации парниковых газов на двух уровнях над поверхностью и применения трехмерной гидродинамической модели турбулентного переноса парниковых газов. Также цель работы включает исследование репрезентативности предложенной методики. Методы исследования. С помощью разработанной ранее гидродинамической модели, модифицированной для учета влияния рельефа, оценивается коэффициент турбулентного обмена для парниковых газов и поле скорости ветра. При наличии измеренных полей концентрации парникового газа на двух уровнях над поверхностью (например, с помощью БПЛА) и модельных данных для коэффициента турбулентности и скорости ветра поток парникового газа оценивается по предложенной в работе приближенной формуле, включающей в себя аппроксимацию вертикального турбулентного и адвективного потоков. Приближенная формула может также использоваться как начальное приближение при решении обратной задачи оценки потока парникового газа, также сформулированной в работе. Результаты работы. На основе ряда численных экспериментов, проведенных для лесного участка карбонового полигона в Рошни-Чу (Чеченская республика) и предложенной в работе аналитической оценки получено распределение потоков CO2над кронами деревьев, проведено их сравнение с теоретически ожидаемым распределением, а также найдены оптимальные уровни над поверхностью для проведения измерений концентрации парниковых газов. The main methods currently used to measure greenhouse gas fluxes in the field, such as the chamber method and the eddy covariance method, have a number of methodological limitations. This makes it difficult to apply these methods widely in terrain with inhomogeneous underlying surface, especially in mountainous regions. Therefore, the task of developing a new working methodology for estimating greenhouse gas fluxes applicable over surfaces with complex topography and inhomogeneous vegetation based on remote sensing methods and mathematical modeling is very urgent. The aim of the paper is to formulate a methodology for retrieving greenhouse gas fluxes based on the data of greenhouse gas concentration measurements at two levels above the surface and the application of a three-dimensional hydrodynamic model of turbulent greenhouse gas transport. aim of the paper also includes the study of the representativeness of the proposed methodology. Research Methods. Using a previously developed hydrodynamic model modified to account for the effect of topography, the turbulent exchange coefficient for greenhouse gases (GHG) and the wind speed field are estimated. With measured GHG concentration fields at two levels above the surface (e.g., using a UAV) and model data for the turbulence coefficient and wind speed, the GHG flux is estimated using the rough formula proposed in the paper, which includes an approximation of the vertical turbulent and advective fluxes. The proposed formula can also be used as a first approximation for solving inverse problem of GHG flux retrieval, which is also given in the paper. Results.Based on a series of numerical experiments that were carried out for the forest area of the Carbon Experimental Site in Roshni-Chu (Chechen Republic) and the analytical evaluation proposed in the paper, the distribution of CO2fluxes over the tree canopy was obtained. They compared with the theoretically expected distribution, and the optimal levels above the surface for measuring greenhouse gas concentrations were found.

The development and functioning of landscapes in different regions of the world, especially at polar latitudes, may be significantly affected by the increased frequency of extreme weather events associated with modern climate change. These events can influence regional biogeochemical cycles, including water, carbon, and nitrogen cycles, with serious implications for ecosystem functioning and canopy production. The main objective of this study is to assess the spatial variability in the response of daily net ecosystem CO₂ exchange (NEE) of Northern Hemisphere tundra and forest-tundra landscapes to anomalous temperature and precipitation events during the growing season. These landscape types are considered to be among the most vulnerable to changes in environmental conditions under a changing climate. For our data analysis, we use meteorological and CO₂ flux data from the global FLUXNET and regional AmeriFlux networks, as well as the ERA5 reanalysis dataset. Analysis of CO₂ flux anomalies in tundra and forest-tundra ecosystems revealed a wide range of observed NEE responses to anomalous temperature and precipitation events during the growing season, depending on geographic location and landscape type. In contrast to most previous studies, the stressed CO₂ uptake and higher CO₂ emissions under anomalously high temperatures were mostly detected at the southern boundary of the polar region, where heat waves are more frequent. Prevailing CO₂ uptake during anomalously high temperature days was found in deciduous broadleaf forests and open shrublands. The effect of anomalously low temperature is manifested by an increase in CO₂ emissions. The response of CO₂ fluxes to anomalously high and low precipitation is quite similar regardless of the time scale (short-term or long-term response). In most tundra and forest-tundra ecosystems, heavy precipitation typically results in increased CO₂ emissions to the atmosphere. The prolonged precipitation deficit is accompanied by a prevailing CO₂ uptake.

This study conducted a comprehensive assessment of the response of wetland ecosystems in temperate and polar latitudes, located on different continents, to extreme weather events. These events included temperature anomalies (unusually high/low temperatures) and precipitation anomalies (droughts/intense precipitation). The analysis of the response net ecosystem exchange (NEE) of CO2 and latent heat (LE) fluxes to extreme temperature and precipitation events used ERA5 reanalysis data [Smith, 2011] and observations of CO2 and LE fluxes from the global FLUXNET database [https://fluxnet.org/data/]. Fifteen greenhouse gas flux monitoring stations were selected for the study, representing the longest and most continuous time series of observations. These stations are located on different continents, with eight stations in temperate latitudes and seven in polar regions. It should be noted that this study focused exclusively on the warm season. The beginning and end of the warm season were defined as the sustained crossing of the daily mean air temperature above 0°C for at least seven consecutive days. For each station, daily anomalies of CO2 and LE fluxes were calculated as the deviation from the long-term mean values for the corresponding day of the year. Extremely high/low values of flux anomalies were identified as exceeding one standard deviation from the overall time series for each calendar month individually. To identify periods with extreme air temperature values, ERA5 reanalysis data on two-meter air temperature every 3 hours with a spatial resolution of 0.25°×0.25° from 1991 to 2021 were used. To estimate extreme precipitation amounts, data from half-hourly station observations were used. Daily means were calculated from these data in a first step. Thresholds for defining extremely hot/cold periods were calculated as daily mean air temperature exceeding the 95th percentile (for anomalously hot periods) or not exceeding the 5th percentile (for anomalously cold periods) of a normal distribution with mean and standard deviation. The distribution was constructed for a specific month of the year and then averaged over the entire period considered. Two approaches were used to determine the extreme precipitation threshold. In the first approach, extreme precipitation days were defined as days with daily precipitation exceeding the 95th percentile of the probability density function (the Weibull distribution was used for precipitation). The second approach was based on the assessment of the Antecedent Precipitation Index (API), which determines the cumulative effect of precipitation on CO2 fluxes. For the quantitative assessment of the relationship between temperature and precipitation extremes and flux anomalies, the percentages of days on which both the NEE/LE anomaly exceeded the standard deviation and the temperature/precipitation exceeded the 95th percentile for the upper threshold or the temperature did not reach the 5th percentile for the lower threshold were calculated. The percentage was calculated based on the total number of days when one of the characteristics (air temperature, daily sum of precipitation) exceeded the threshold. The analysis showed that temperate and polar wetland ecosystems can respond differently to temperature and precipitation anomalies. These differences can be attributed to the geographic location of the ecosystem, regional climatic conditions, plant species composition, and the intensity of temperature and precipitation extremes. During the warm half of the year, periods of extremely high temperatures in temperate latitudes were associated with a positive CO2 flux anomaly, corresponding to an increased emission of CO2 into the atmosphere. In contrast, polar latitudes showed an opposite response - an increase in CO2 uptake by wetland ecosystems under anomalously high temperatures. This opposite response of CO2 fluxes may be related to the different soil moisture regimes in polar wetland ecosystems and the different plant species composition. Extremely high temperatures were accompanied by positive LE anomalies due to the intensification of evaporation processes with rising temperatures, a trend observed in all wetland ecosystems analyzed. The immediate response of wetland ecosystems to intense precipitation (above the 95th percentile) was manifested as an increase in CO2 flux to the atmosphere at almost all stations analyzed. This observed response could be related to the "Birch effect" [Birch, 1964], which is characterized by an intensification of soil respiration due to a sudden increase in soil moisture and, consequently, an increase in the rate of decomposition and mineralization of organic matter during heavy precipitation and rising groundwater levels. LE flux decreases during intense precipitation, indicating suppression of evaporation due to high humidity and reduced incoming solar radiation. The cumulative effect (API index) of extremely high precipitation is characterized by a predominance of extremely positive CO2 flux anomalies over negative ones in wetland ecosystems at both temperate and polar latitudes. It should also be noted that the percentage of days with increased CO2 uptake during the two weeks following intense precipitation is significantly higher than for the immediate response (10-25% of days in temperate latitudes and 5-20% of days in polar latitudes). The increase in CO2 uptake after heavy precipitation may be related to enhanced photosynthetic rates of the vegetation cover under sunny weather and optimal soil moisture conditions. A prolonged absence of precipitation, represented by extremely low API values, is accompanied by negative CO2 flux anomalies (enhanced uptake) at most of the studied wetland ecosystem stations, indicating a high adaptive potential of the studied wetland ecosystems to short-term (less than 14 days) dry periods. On the other hand, enhanced CO2 uptake could be facilitated by clear...