Cheese rinds host a specific microbiota composed of both prokaryotes (such as Actinobacteria, Firmicutes and Proteobacteria) and eukaryotes (primarily yeasts and moulds). By combining modern molecular biology tools with conventional, culture-based techniques, it has now become possible to create a catalogue of the biodiversity that inhabits this special environment. Here, we review the microbial genera detected on the cheese surface and highlight the previously unsuspected importance of non-inoculated microflora—raising the question of the latter's environmental sources and their role in shaping microbial communities. There is now a clear need to revise the current view of the cheese rind ecosystem (i.e. that of a well-defined, perfectly controlled ecosystem). Inclusion of these new findings should enable us to better understand the cheese-making process.

Lake Pavin is a meromictic crater lake located in the French Massif Central area. In this ecosystem, most methane (CH4) produced in high quantity in t

Cheese ripening is a complex biochemical process driven by microbial communities composed of both eukaryotes and prokaryotes. Surface-ripened cheeses are widely consumed all over the world and are appreciated for their characteristic flavor. Microbial community composition has been studied for a long time on surface-ripened cheeses, but only limited knowledge has been acquired about its in situ metabolic activities. We applied metagenomic, metatranscriptomic and biochemical analyses to an experimental surface-ripened cheese composed of nine microbial species during four weeks of ripening. By combining all of the data, we were able to obtain an overview of the cheese maturation process and to better understand the metabolic activities of the different community members and their possible interactions. Furthermore, differential expression analysis was used to select a set of biomarker genes, providing a valuable tool that can be used to monitor the cheese-making process.

Meat represents an important protein source, even in developing countries, but its production is scarcely sustainable, and its excessive consumption poses health issues. An increasing number of Western consumers would replace, at least partially, meat with alternative protein sources. This review aims at: (i) depicting nutritional, functional, sensory traits, and critical issues of single-cell proteins (SCP), filamentous fungi, microalgae, vegetables (alone or mixed with milk), and insects and (ii) displaying how fermentation could improve their quality, to facilitate their use as food items/ingredients/supplements. Production of SCP (yeasts, filamentous fungi, microalgae) does not need arable land and potable water and can run continuously, also using wastes and byproducts. Some filamentous fungi are also consumed as edible mushrooms, and others are involved in the fermentation of traditional vegetable-based foods. Cereals, pseudocereals, and legumes may be combined to offer an almost complete amino acid profile. Fermentation of such vegetables, even in combination with milk-based products (e.g., tarhana), could increase nutrient concentrations, including essential amino acids, and improve sensory traits. Different insects could be used, as such or, to increase their acceptability, as ingredient of foods (e.g., pasta). However, insects as a protein source face with safety concerns, cultural constraints, and a lack of international regulatory framework.