As drinking water is considered as a major pathway of exposure to fluoride in the human body, an endeavor has been made for the assessment of the non-carcinogenic health risk by using hazard quotient (HQ) of fluoride for males, females, and children separately in fluoride affected ground water areas of Indo-Gangetic Alluvial Plains. The study suggests that children groups are more prone to the non-carcinogenic risk of fluoride in the area as HQ for fluoride is more than unitary in 44% (Pre-monsoon) and 38% (Post-monsoon) samples respectively. Field survey conducted in fluoride-affected villagers of the study area portrays cases of mottling of teeth and bone deformities depending on the duration and dosage of fluoride consumption. Petrographic observations of host rocks coupled with molar ratios of chemical species studies exemplify that weathered material developed over the granite-gneiss, mica-schist, amphibolite, granitic intrusive and pegmatite veins due to weathering and extensive water-rock interaction resulting higher concentration of fluoride in groundwater. Likewise, the base exchange index (r1) and meteoric genesis index (r2) advocates that most of the samples belong to Na⁺-HCO₃⁻ type and meteoric origin respectively, and substantiate longer residence time of water along with solute acquisition processes are responsible for elevated fluoride in groundwater. It is, therefore, solar energy-driven electrolytic de-fluoridation technology ought to be provided on a priority basis to the affected inhabitants besides the implementation of rainwater harvesting schemes for mitigation/ dilution of elevated fluoride concentration.

Numerous iron ore deposits are hosted within the Meso to Neo-Archean banded iron formations (BIFs) extending across the Singhbhum-Orissa Craton, eastern India. Despite the widespread distribution of BIFs, which forms part of the iron ore group (IOG), heterogeneity in their grade and mineral composition is occasionally observed even within a single ore deposit. Kiriburu-Meghahatuburu iron ore deposit (KMIOD), west Singhbhum district, Jharkhand, eastern India is characterized by a dominant hematite (often martitized) occurrence with a total resource of >150 million tonnes (MT) at 62.85 wt % Fe. Very high-grade blue dust ore (friable and powdery hematitewith~67% Fe), high-grade massive, hard laminated hematitic ores (~66% Fe) and medium to low grade goethitic/lateritic ores (50%–60% Fe) are the common iron-ore lithologies in KMIOD. These ores can be distinguished in the field from their physical appearance, meso-scale texture and spatial occurrences with the host rocks along with the variation in chemical composition. The high-grade ores are characterized by high Fe (>62 wt %), low Al₂O₃ (1.5–2.5 wt %), low SiO₂ (2.0–4.5 wt %) and low P (<0.06 wt %). Detailed field studies and laboratory investigations on the ore mineral assemblages suggest that the mineralization of high-grade iron ores at KMIOD is controlled by three major parameters, i.e., lithological, paleoclimatic and structural controls. High-grade iron ores such as blue dust seem to be formed during leaching processes through inter-bedded ferruginous shale and banded hematite jasper (BHJ) occurring within BIFs. Structural elements such as folds, joint network, fracture arrays, local faults and steeply dipping bedding planes are surmised as strong controls for the evolution of different iron ore types from the BHJ. Most of the high-grade ores are concentrated at the hinge portions of second generation folds (F₂) owing to the easy access for circulation of meteoric solution along the fractures developed due to release of stresses at the hinge portions aided by supergene ore enrichment processes. The BHJ and interbedded ferruginous shale seem to have been given a significant contribution for the formation of different grades of iron ores over the area. Lithologically, the BIFs are governed by rheological features providing channel ways in the ore enrichment process. The variation in the iron ore mineralogy is caused by the variation in depositional and paleoclimatic environment, structural setting and lithological attributes. Hence, these parameters could be used for future exploration and grade recovery of iron ore resources in the region and in the adjoining areas.